Determinants and Outcomes of Livelihood Diversification among Small-scale Tree Growers in Kilolo District, Tanzania
Abstract
Small-scale tree growers (SSTGs) are critical in sustainably managing forests and rural livelihoods in Tanzania. Grounded in the Sustainable Livelihood Framework, this study characterises determinants and outcomes of livelihood diversifications among SSTGs in the Kilolo District of Tanzania. Data were collected cross-sectionally using questionnaire surveys administered to 101 households, key informant interviews (KII), and focus groups. T-test analysis reveals that socio-economic characteristics significantly influence the diversification of livelihood strategies. The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index of 0.346 indicates considerable diversification in sources of income. The multinomial logistic regression model classifies 97% of all cases, indicating an excellent fit to the data. The model analysis identifies total mean annual income, entrepreneurship, and Tree Grower Associations (TGAs) membership to be determinants of livelihood diversification among SSTGs. The study recommends that policy, institutional, market, and credit access barriers be identified and addressed to enable SSTGs to improve their highly diversified livelihood status
Downloads
References
Abera, A., Yirgu, T., & Uncha, A. (2021). Determinants of rural livelihood diversification strategies among Chewaka resettlers’ communities of southwestern Ethiopia. Agriculture & Food Security, 10(1), 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-021-00305-w
Admasu, T. T., Damtie, Y. A., & Taye, M. A. (2022). Determinants of Livelihood Diversification among Households in the Sub‐Saharan Town of Merawi, Ethiopia. Advances in Agriculture, 2022(1), 6600178. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/6600178
Angelsen, A., & Wunder, S. (2003). Exploring the forest-poverty link. CIFOR occasional paper, 40, 1-20. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sven-Wunder/publication/351478916_Exploring_the_forest- - poverty_link_key_concepts_issues_and_research_implications/links/640730d40cf1030a567ef617/Exploring-the-forest--poverty-link-key-concepts-issues-and-research-implications.pdf
Arvola, A., Malkamäki, A., Penttilä, J., & Toppinen, A. (2019). Mapping the future market potential of timber from small-scale tree farmers: Perspectives from the Southern Highlands in Tanzania. Small-Scale Forestry, 18, 189–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-019-09414-8
Ashraf, J., Pandey, R., de Jong, W., & Nagar, B. (2015). Factors influencing farmers’ decisions to plant trees on their farms in Uttar Pradesh, India. Small-Scale Forestry, 14, 301–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-015-9289-7
Bertomeu, M. (2006). Financial evaluation of smallholder timber-based agroforestry systems in Claveria, Northern Mindanao, the Philippines. Small-Scale Forest Economics, Management and Policy, 5, 57–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-006-0004-6
Dubey, P. (2008). Investment in small-scale forestry enterprises: a strategic perspective for India. Small-Scale Forestry, 7, 117–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-008-9045-3
Meyfroidt, P., & Lambin, E. F. (2008). The causes of the reforestation in Vietnam. Land Use Policy, 25(2), 182– 197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2007.06.001
Babatunde, R. O. & Qaim, M. (2009). Patterns of income diversification in rural Nigeria: Determinants and impacts. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture. : https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287634427
Barbier, E. B. (2010). Poverty, development, and environment. Environment and development economics, 15(6), 635-660. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X1000032X
Bardsley, D. K., Cedamon, E., Paudel, N. S., & Nuberg, I. (2022). Education and sustainable forest management in the mid-hills of Nepal. Journal of Environmental Management, 319, 115698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115698
Barrett, C. B., Reardon, T. & Webb, P. (2001). Nonfarm income diversification and household livelihood strategies in rural Africa: Concepts, dynamics, and policy implications. Food Policy. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306–9192(01)00014–8
Beckline, M., Sun, Z.Q., Ntoko, V., Ngwesse, D., Manan, A., Hu, Y., Mukete, N., Che, L. and Foncha, J. (2022) Rural Livelihoods and Forest Incomes in the Etinde Community Forest of South West Cameroon. Open Access Library Journal, 9: e8793. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1108793
Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods. Oxford University Press. From: Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods. Oxford University Press.
Dabla-Norris, E. (2015). Causes and Consequences of Income Inequality: A Global Perspective. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/Staff-Discussion-Notes/Issues/2016/12/31/Causes-and-Consequences-of-Income-Inequality-A-Global-Perspective-42986
Dereje, D., Tilahun, T., & Yirgu, T. (2024). Livelihood diversification strategies and food security in the Weaving-based livelihood system of Gamo Zone, Southern Ethiopia. F1000Research, 13, 1459. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.156450.1
Fantaye Teklemariam, D. (2021). Investigating the contribution of forests to the livelihood of rural communities. A Focus on Households in Sheko Woreda, Southwest Ethiopia (Doctoral dissertation, University of Huddersfield). https://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/35657/
Flanagan, A. C., Midgley, S. J., & Stevens, P. R. (2020). Smallholder tree-farmers and forest certification in Southeast Asia: alternative approaches to deliver more benefits to growers. Australian Forestry, 83(2), 52–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049158.2020.1762150
Goetz, S. J., & Rupasingha, A. (2009). Determinants of growth in non-farm proprietor densities in the US, 1990–2000. Small Business Economics, 32, 425-438. DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-007-9079-5
Gebru, G. W., Ichoku, H. E., & Phil-Eze, P. O. (2020). Determinants of smallholder farmers’ adoption of adaptation strategies to climate change in Eastern Tigray National Regional State of Ethiopia. Heliyon, 6(7). DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04356
Hingi, O. S. (2018). Organization of smallholder tree growers, support organizations, linkages and implications for woodlots performance: The case of Mufindi district, Tanzania. Institute of International Forestry and Forest Products Professorship of Tropical Forestry. Facult. Tropical Forestry and Management, Tanzania. Retrieved from www.core.ac.uk/download/pdf/236378247.pdf. Visited on 26/03/2023
Hintz, K. S., Kimengsi, J. N., and Pretzsch, J. (2021). How do smallholder forest farmers’ organizations manage and commercialize wood products?–A global systematic review. Forest Policy and Economics, 128, 102460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2021.102460
Hintz, K. S., and Pretzsch, J. (2023a). Co‐creation of business models for smallholder forest farmers’ organizations: Lessons learned from rural Ethiopia and Tanzania. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 94(3), 921–949. https://doi.org/10.1111/apce.12413
Hua, X., Yan, J., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Evaluating the role of livelihood assets in suitable livelihood strategies: Protocol for anti-poverty policy in the Eastern Tibetan Plateau, China. Ecological Indicators, 78, 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.03.009
Irawan, N. C., & Esthi, R. B. (2024). Fostering Community Participation: The Role of Forestry Extension Officers in Maximizing Social Capital for National Park Conservation. Jurnal Sylva Lestari, 12(1), 54–75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.23960/jsl.v12i1.752
Jalang’o Anyango, D., Begasha, E., & Kweka, T. (2019). Tanzania Country Climate Risk Profile Series, Kilolo District. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/107799
Jatto, K. A., Akanbi, S. O., Adeoye, A. S., & Oke, O. O. (2021). Livelihood diversification among arable farm households in the forest zone of Oyo State, Nigeria. Nigeria Agricultural Journal, 52(2), 130-136. Available at: http://www.ajol.info/index.php/naj
Khan, N., Fahad, S., Faisal, S., Akbar, A., & Naushad, M. (2020). Socio-economic and medicinal review of Eucalyptus tree in the world. Available at SSRN 3644215. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shah-Fahad-21/publication/342901635_Socio- Economic_and_Medicinal_Review_of_Eucalyptus_Tree_in_the_World/links/5f0c93e092851c38a51a0dc9/Socio-Economic-and-Medicinal-Review-of-Eucalyptus-Tree-in-the-World.pdf
Kimengsi, J. N., Mukong, A. K., & Balgah, R. A. (2020). Livelihood diversification and household well-being: Insights and policy implications for forest-based communities in Cameroon. Society & Natural Resources, 33(7), 876- 895. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2020.1769243
Markley, D. M., & Low, S. A. (2012). Wealth, entrepreneurship, and rural livelihoods. Choices, 27(1). https://www.jstor.org/stable/choices.27.1.07
Martin, R., Mhando, D., Nyanda, S., & Lusasi, J. (2025). Perceived effects of tree planting in Iringa and Njombe regions Tanzania. International Forestry Review.
Mayers, J., Buckley, L., & Macqueen, D. (2016). Small, but many, is big: challenges in assessing the collective scale of locally controlled forest-linked production and investment. From www.researchgate.net/profile/Duncanacqueen/publication/301548950_ production-and-investment.pdf. Visited May 2022.
Natarajan, N., Newsham, A., Rigg, J., & Suhardiman, D. (2022). A sustainable livelihoods framework for the 21st century. World Development, 155, 105898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105898
NBS, (2022). Kilolo and Mufindi Districts Population Census. Source: National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania Retrieved from www.nbs.go.tz/nbs/takwimu/Census2022/Administrative_units_Population_Distribution_Report_Tanzania_volume1a.pdf. pp122
Newton, P., Miller, D. C., Byenkya, M. A. A., & Agrawal, A. (2016). Who are forest-dependent people? A taxo nomy to aid livelihood and land use decision-making in forested regions. Land use policy, 57, 388- 395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.05.032
Nyombi, R., & Chegere, M. (2023). Determinants of Livelihood Diversification Amongst Rural Households in Tanzania. UDSM Online Journal Testing, 13(1), 25-42. https://doi.org/10.56279/ter.v13i1.77
Paudel Khatiwada, S., Deng, W., Paudel, B., Khatiwada, J. R., Zhang, J., & Su, Y. (2017). Household livelihood strategies and implication for poverty reduction in rural areas of central Nepal. Sustainability, 9(4), 612.
PFP2. (2021). Guideline for facilitation of tree growers’ association establishment and strengthening, February, 2021. Iringa, Tanzania. Retrieved from www.privateforestry.or.tz/resources/view/guideline-for-facilitation-of-tree-growers-association-establishment-and-strengthening. Visited May 2023.
Rakodi, C. (2014). A livelihoods approach–conceptual issues and definitions. In Urban livelihoods (pp. 3–22). Routledge. From: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781849773805-2/livelihoods-approach-conceptual-issues-definitions-carole-rakodi.
Rasmussen, L. V., Watkins, C., & Agrawal, A. (2017). Forest contributions to livelihoods in changing agriculture-forest landscapes. Forest Policy and Economics, 84, 1–8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2017.04.010
Regmi, B. N., & Garforth, C. (2010). Trees outside forests and rural livelihoods: a study of Chitwan District, Nepal. Agroforestry Systems, 79, 393–407. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-010-9292-0
Rhoades, S. A. (1993). The herfindahl-hirschman index. Fed. Res. Bull., 79, 188. From: https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/fedred79&div=37&id=&page=
Roy, A., & Basu, S. (2020). Determinants of livelihood diversification under environmental change in coastal community of Bangladesh. Asia-Pacific Journal of Rural Development, 30(1- 2), 7- 26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1018529120946159
Sharma, R., & Singh, G. (2019). Livelihood diversification strategy and technology access in rural India: A special reference to small growers. In Agriculture Innovation Systems in Asia (pp. 206-229). Routledge India.
Shen, Y., Wang, J., Wang, L., Wu, B., Ye, X., Han, Y., Wang, R., & Chandio, A. A. (2022). How do cooperatives alleviate poverty of farmers? Evidence from rural China. Land, 11(10), 1836. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11101836
Shively, G., & Luckert, M. (2012). An introduction to data analysis. In Measuring Livelihoods and Environmental Dependence (pp. 209–226). Routledge.
Shiyani, R. L., & Pandya, H. R. (1998). Diversification of agriculture in Gujarat: A spatio-temporal analysis. Indian journal of agricultural economics, 53(4), 627-639. From: http://ageconsearch.umn.edu, aesearch@umn.edu
Tazebew, E., & Woldie, Z. (2023). The Role of Forest for Rural Livelihood Diversification in Ethiopia. International Journal of Agricultural Science and Research, 11, 1-7. [https://www.academeresearchjournals.org/download.php?id=257489126113838341.pdf&type=application%2Fpdf&op=1%3D]
Tomas, A., & Gile, K. J. (2011). The effect of differential recruitment, non-response and non-recruitment on estimators for respondent-driven sampling.
Tweve, Y., & Masalu, G. R. (2024). Barriers and Opportunities for Green Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies: A Case Study of Kilolo District, Tanzania. https://doi.org/10.14445/23497157/IJRES-V11I6P121
United Republic of Tanzania – URT. (2022). Kilolo District Council Strategic Plan for the Year 2015/2016-2020/2021. Retrieved from https://kilolodc.go.tz/storage/app/uploads/public/64c/0e4/aa2/64c0e4aa243af306003472.pdf on 24th March 2023
Versteeg, S., Hansen, C. P., & Pouliot, M. (2017). Factors influencing smallholder commercial tree planting in Isabel Province, the Solomon Islands. Agroforestry Systems, 91, 375–392. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-016-9940-0
Yamane, T. (1967). Elementary sampling theory. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Inc. Englewood Cliffs.
Yizengaw, Y. S., Okoyo, E. N., & Beyene, F. (2015). Determinants of livelihood diversification strategies: The case of smallholder rural farm households in Debre Elias Woreda, East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 10(19), 1998–2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2014.9192
Copyright (c) 2025 Zacharia Simon Mmary, Felister Michael Mombo, Greyson Zablon Nyamoga, Kendisha Soekadjo Hintz, Lukas Giessen
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
