Assessing the Burden of External Parasites on Livestock Productivity and Health: A Case Study of the Nugal Region, Somalia
Abstract
This study assesses the burden of external parasites on livestock productivity and health in the Nugal region of Somalia through a combined secondary and primary research approach. Using a systematic review of 35 peer-reviewed studies alongside field data from 245 pastoral households, the research identifies ticks, lice, mites, and fleas as the most prevalent ectoparasites affecting cattle, camels, goats, and sheep. Ticks, particularly Rhipicephalus, Amblyomma, and Hyalomma species, accounted for 98.4% of infestations, with dry-season peaks linked to environmental and management factors. Parasite-induced conditions such as babesiosis, theileriosis, and anaplasmosis contributed to average milk yield reductions of 42%, body-weight losses of 15–20%, and extended calving intervals. These biological effects translated into significant socioeconomic impacts, as control costs consumed approximately 22% of household livestock expenditure. Comparative synthesis with regional studies from Somalia, Ethiopia, and Kenya revealed similar prevalence and management challenges, including acaricide resistance, high treatment costs, and limited veterinary support. Gendered analysis highlighted that women, though primary caretakers of small ruminants, had less access to extension information and veterinary services. The study concludes that ectoparasitism in the Nugal region is both a veterinary and livelihood challenge requiring integrated solutions. It recommends community-based Integrated Pest Management (IPM), improved acaricide stewardship, gender-inclusive farmer education, and strengthened One Health coordination to mitigate parasite burdens, restore productivity, and enhance pastoral resilience in Somalia.
Downloads
References
Abro, Z., Fetene, G. M., Kassie, M., & Melesse, T. M. (2023). Socioeconomic burden of trypanosomiasis: evidence from crop and livestock production in Ethiopia. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 74(3), 785-799.
Bahy, M. M., Kamel, N. O., Auda, H. M., & Ramadan, R. M. (2023). A smart economic way to control camel parasites and improve camel production in Egypt. Experimental Parasitology, 255, 108650.
Belete, W., & Mekuria, S. (2023). Prevalence, species identification, and associated risk factor Ixodid tick infestation of cattle in Selamago District southern Ethiopia. Environmental health insights, 17, 11786302231211076.
Boulangé, A., Lejon, V., Berthier, D., Thévenon, S., Gimonneau, G., Desquesnes, M., ... & Cecchi, G. (2022). The COMBAT project: controlling and progressively minimizing the burden of vector-borne animal trypanosomosis in Africa. Open Research Europe, 2, 67.
Chalchisa, A., & Bersissa, E. (2023). Ectoparasites and their effect on camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Ethiopia. J. Vet. Res. Adv, 5(1), 55-69.
Heerden, N., Grobbelaar, S. S., Meyer, I., & Vermeulen, E. (2024). Emerging smallholder cattle farming from a one health perspective: a system dynamics model of the highveld region of South Africa. Environmental Science & Policy, 152, 103646.
Herring, E., Adam, J., & Ali, A. (2024). 'The land has become empty': The climate crisis, Somali nomadic pastoralists and livestock enclosures. Southern African Journal of Environmental Education, 40.
Heylen, D. J., Kumsa, B., Kimbita, E., Frank, M. N., Muhanguzi, D., Jongejan, F., ... & Madder, M. (2023). Tick communities of cattle in smallholder rural livestock production systems in sub-Saharan Africa. Parasites & vectors, 16(1), 206.
Hussein, H. A., Mohamed, A., & Ahmed, J. M. (2024). Participatory epidemiology on major camel calf health and management problems in pastoral and semi-pastoral zones of Somali region, Ethiopia. Plos one, 19(3), e0301551.
Jaja, I. F., & Wanga-Ungeviwa, P. (2022). A 6-year retrospective report of livestock parasitic diseases in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Open Veterinary Journal, 12(2), 204-211.
Jama, M. M., Hussein, H. A., Abdi, S. M., & Feyera, T. (2023). Participatory and Conventional Investigation of Tick Infestation in Camels and Cattle of Somali Pastoral Areas, Eastern Ethiopia. Journal of Parasitology Research, 2023(1), 5840827.
Jimale, K. A., Wall, R., & Otranto, D. (2023). Ticks and tick-borne pathogens of domestic animals in Somalia and neighbouring regions of Ethiopia and Kenya. Acta Tropica, 243, 106944.
Jimenez, C. E. P., Keestra, S., Tandon, P., Cumming, O., Pickering, A. J., Moodley, A., & Chandler, C. I. (2023). Biosecurity and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions in animal agricultural settings for reducing infection burden, antibiotic use, and antibiotic resistance: a One Health systematic review. The Lancet Planetary Health, 7(5), e418-e434.
Kaminsky, R., & Mäser, P. (2025). Global impact of parasitic infections and the importance of parasite control. Frontiers in Parasitology, 4, 1546195.
Kappes, A., Tozooneyi, T., Shakil, G., Railey, A. F., McIntyre, K. M., Mayberry, D. E., ... & Marsh, T. L. (2023). Livestock health and disease economics: a scoping review of selected literature. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, 1168649.
Kustritz, M. R. (2022). Parasite Control. Veterinary Preventive Medicine.
Lanker, K. C., Muhummed, A. M., Cissé, G., Zinsstag, J., Hattendorf, J., Yusuf, R. B., ... & Vonaesch, P. (2023). Prevalence and associated risk factors of intestinal parasitic infections among children in pastoralist and agro-pastoralist communities in the Adadle woreda of the Somali Regional State of Ethiopia. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 17(7), e0011448.
Mohamed, M. O. S., Yasin, A. M., & Jama, N. A. (2024). Assesment of the Prevalence and Risk Factors of Haemonchus Contortus Infection of Sheep and Goat in Afgooye District, Lower Shabelle, Somalia.
Mohamed, M. O., Ibrahim, A. M., Ahmed, H. A., Yusuf, M. A., Mio, J. B., Salah, O. M., ... & Hassan, Y. H. S. (2023). Assessment of the prevalence and associated risk factors of gastrointestinal parasite of goats in Afgooye district, Lower Shabelle, Somalia.
Rebuma, T., Girma, W., Regassa, M., Gemechu, Z., & Pal, M. (2024). Prevalence of parasitic infestation of poultry presented at Guder Mamo Mezemir Campus Veterinary Teaching Clinic, Guder, Oromia regional state, Ethiopia. Int J Livest Res, 14(9), 20-6.
Refisa, N., & Rebuma, T. (2024). Review on Importance of Ectoparasites in Backyard Chicken Production Systems in Rural Ethiopia. International Journal of Medical Parasitology and Epidemiology Sciences, 5(4), 125-132.
Salem, M. O. A., Alalwany, R. A. S., Bassoss, A. S. O., & Alsshabo, S. M. A. (2025). The Impact of Parasites on Farm Animal Productivity: A Review. Libyan Journal of Medical and Applied Sciences, 115-120.
Strydom, T., Lavan, R. P., Torres, S., & Heaney, K. (2023). The economic impact of parasitism from nematodes, trematodes and ticks on beef cattle production. Animals, 13(10), 1599.
Terfa, W., Kumsa, B., Ayana, D., Maurizio, A., Tessarin, C., & Cassini, R. (2023). Epidemiology of gastrointestinal parasites of cattle in three districts in Central Ethiopia. Animals, 13(2), 285.
Whatford, L., van Winden, S., & Häsler, B. (2022). A systematic literature review on the economic impact of endemic disease in UK sheep and cattle using a One Health conceptualisation. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 209, 105756.
Yusuf, K., Bedada, H., & Meresa, D. (2024). Ethno veterinary approaches on control and treating parasitic diseases. Available at SSRN 4810721.
Copyright (c) 2025 Abdinur Ayanle Mohamud, Abdirahman Ahmed Ismail
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
