Use, Disposal and Environmental Challenges of Insecticide Treated Nets
Abstract
Insecticide treated nets are critical tools for prevention of malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases. They have also been demonstrated to prevent nuisance and infective bites from a few other insects. Recently, there has been an increased push by the international community to eliminate malaria and therefore resources have been channelled into higher production and supply of ITNs to endemic areas, thus increasing their presence in the environment. The trend is unlikely to change given that ITNS are still strongly recommended by WHO as part of the methods with which significant reduction in malaria incidence can be achieved. ITNS are available in different physical properties and chemical treatments. Differences in physico-chemical properties do not only confer different abilities of insect bite protection, but they also determine the extent of environmental degradation caused especially when proper disposal guidelines are not followed. Environmental pollution may pose human health risks as well as affecting susceptible organisms within vulnerable ecosystems. Owing to the undesirable effects of treated net associated environmental pollution, there is increasing advocacy for and research in the improvement of these important tools to standards of degradable materials and natural chemicals with little or no effect to the environment. This paper reviews the bednet properties, their use and misuse, disposal and environmental pollution that arises from their misuse and incorrect disposal. To do this, Dimensions scientific research database was queried using predetermined and appropriate search words. Recommendations for changes of materials and chemical treatments are provided.
Downloads
References
Agumba, S., Gimnig, J.E., Ogonda, L., Ombok, M., Kosgei, J., Munga, S., Guyah, B., Omondi, S. and Ochomo, E. (2019). Diagnostic dose determination and efcacy of chlorfenapyr and clothianidin insecticides against Anopheles malaria vector populations of western Kenya. Malaria Journal, 18:243 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-019-2858-z
Aïkpon, R., Afoukou, C., Hounpkatin, B., Eclou, D., Cyaka, Y., Egwu, E., Agbessi, N., Tokponnon, F., Salifou, S., Salami, L. and Hounto, A.O. (2020). Digitalized mass distribution campaign of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) in the particular context of Covid-19 pandemic in Benin: challenges and lessons learned. Malaria Journal, 19:431 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-020-03508-x
Ansari, R. A., Kaur, M., Ahmad, F., Rahman, S., Rashid, H., Islam, F. and Raisuddin, S. (2009). Genotoxic and oxidative stress-inducing effects of deltamethrin in the erythrocytes of a freshwater biomarker fish species, Channa punctata Bloch. Environmental toxicology, 24 (5): 429-436. https://doi.org/10.1002/tox.20445
Anyanwu, E.C., Ehiri, J.E., Kanu, I., Morad, M. Ventegodt, S. and Merrick, J. (2004). Assessing the Health Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Insecticide-Treated Mosquito Nets in the Control of Malaria in Endemic Regions. The Scientific World JOURNAL 4: 978–988. DOI 10.1100/tsw.2004.195.
Baz, M.M., Hegazy, M.M., Khater, H.F. and El-Sayed, Y.A (2021). Comparative Evaluation of Five Oil-Resin Plant Extracts against The Mosquito Larvae, Culex
pipiens Say (Diptera: Culicidae). Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 41(2): 191-196.
http://dx.doi.org/10.29261/pakvetj/2021.010
Berthe, S., Harvey, S.A., Lynch, M., Koenker, H., Jumbe, V., Kaunda Khangamwa, B. and Mathanga, D.P. (2019). Poverty and food security: drivers of insecticide-treated mosquito net misuse in Malawi. Malaria Journal, 18:320. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-019-2952-2
Bliznashka, L., Roy, A. and Jaaks, L.M. (2022). Pesticide exposure and child growth in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Environmental Research, Volume 215, Part 1: 114230
Brake, S., Gomez-Maldonado, D., Hummel, M., Zohdy, S. and Peresin, M.S. (2022). Understanding the current state-of-the-art of long-lasting insecticide nets and potential for sustainable alternatives. Current Research in Parasitology & Vector-Borne Diseases, 2:100101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crpvbd.2022.100101
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2019). Insecticide treated nets. Accessed on 21/09/2022.
Chrustek A., Hołyńska-Iwan I., Dziembowska I., Bogusiewicz J., Wróblewski M., Cwynar A. and Olszewska-Słonina D. (2018). Current research on the safety of pyrethroids used as insecticides. Medicina (Lithuania) 54: 1–15.
Diouf, E., Diouf, M., Dieme, C., Swamidoss, I., Ngom, E.M., Senghor, M.W., Mbaye, M., Konaté, A., Coulibaly, Y., Tine, D., Dia, I., Dotson, E.M., Faye, O. and Konaté, L. (2022). Evaluation of the residual efficacy and physical durability of #ve long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) in Senegal. Malaria Journal, 21:210 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-022-04230-6
Doda, W., Solomon, T., Loha, E., Gari, T. and Lindtjørn, B. (2018). A qualitative study of use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) for intended and unintended purposes in Adami Tullu, East. Malaria Journal, 17:69 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-018-2209-5
dos Anjos, C.S., Birolli, W.G. and Porto, A.L.M. (2020). The biodegradation of the pyrethroid pesticide esfenvalerate by a bacterial consortium isolated from brazilian savannah. J. Braz. Chem. Soc., 2020, 8, 1654-1660.
Drobac, D., Tokodi, N. Simeunović, J., Baltić, V., Stanić, D. and Svirčev, Z. (2013). Human exposure to cyanotoxins and their effects on health. Effect of cyanotoxins on humans, a review. Archives of hygiene and toxicology. 64, 305-315
Eisele, T.P, Thwing, J. and Keating, J. (2011). Claims about the Misuse of Insecticide-Treated Mosquito Nets: Are These Evidence-Based? PLoS Medicine, 8(4): 1-3
Elroby, S.A.K and Aziz, S.G. (2011). Understanding the decomposition reaction mechanism of chrysanthemic acid: a computational study Understanding the decomposition reaction, mechanism of chrysanthemic acid: a computational study, Chemistry central Journa, 5, 66
Elsayed, G.A, and Hassabo, A.G. (2021). Insect Repellent of Cellulosic Fabrics (A Review) Letters in Applied Nanobioscience, 11(1): 3181 - 319
Fru, P.N., Cho, F.N., Tassang, A.N., Fru, C.N., Peter Nde, P. and Ekobo, A. S. (2021). Ownership and Utilisation of Long-Lasting Insecticidal Nets in Tiko Health District, Southwest Region, Cameroon: A Cross- Sectional Study. Journal of Parasitology Research Volume 2021, Article ID 8848091, 10
Gnanguenon, V., Azondekon, R., Oke-Agbo, F., Beach, B. and Akogbeto, M. (2014).Durability assessment results suggest a serviceable life of two, rather than three, years for the current long-lasting insecticidal (mosquito) net (LLIN) intervention in Benin. BMC Infectious Diseases, 14:69 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2334/14/69
Guillet P, Alnwick D, Cham MK, Neira M, Zaim M, Heyman D, et al (2001). Long-lasting treated mosquito nets: A breakthrough in malaria prevention. Bull World Health Organ., 79:998.
Gutiérrez-Jara, J. P. , Vogt-Geisse , K. and Cabrera, M. (2022). Collateral Effects of Insecticide-Treated Nets on Human and Environmental Safety in an Epidemiological Model for Malaria with Human Risk Perception. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19: 16327. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijerph19231632
Hougard JM, Duchon S, Darriet F, Zaim M, Rogier C, Guillet P. (2003). Comparative performances, under laboratory conditions, of seven pyrethroid insecticides used for impregnation of mosquito nets. Bull World Health Organ. 2003; 81:324-33
Huun, K. (2022). Challenges in recycling. Environmental centre, University of Colorado Boulder.
Ikon G.M.A. and Ejezie G.C (2003. Assessment of the efficacy of Deltamethrin Impregnated Bednets for the Control of Malaria Infection in Ono Village, Akwa Ibom State Nigeria. Mary Slessor Journal of Medicine, 3: No. 2
Kasili, S. and Mwangangi, J. (2016). Insecticide treated nets for Malaria control: A review of lessons learnt, challenges and recommendations. Journal of Disease and Global Health, 7(1): 14-30
Kaur, H., Allan, E.L., Eggelte, T.A, Guillermo A. García, G.A. and Monti, F.(2021). A colorimetric test for the evaluation of the insecticide content of LLINs used on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. Malaria Journal 20:433. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-021-03967-w
Kibe L.W., Kamau A.W, Gachigi J.K, Habluetzel A., Mbogo C.M. (2019). A formative study of disposal and re-use of old mosquito nets by communities in Malindi Kenya. Malaria World J. 2019; 6:9.
Koenker, H., Worges, M. , Kamala, B. , Gitanya, P. , Chacky,F. , Lazaro, S. , Mwalimu, C.D., Aaron, S., Mwingizi, D., Dadi, D. ,Selby, A. , Serbantez, N. , Msangi, L. , Loll, D and Yukich, J. (2022). Annual distributions of insecticide-treated nets to school children and other key populations to maintain higher ITN access than with mass campaigns: a modelling study for mainland Tanzania. Malaria Journal, 21:246 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-022-04272-w
Larsen, D. A., Welsh, R., Mulenga, A. and Reid, R. (2018). Widespread mosquito net fishing in the Barotse floodplain: Evidence from qualitative interviews. PLoS ONE 13(5): e0195808. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195808
Lu, Q., Sun, Y., Ares, I., Anadon, A., Martinex, M., Martinex-Larranaga, M., Yuan, Z., Wang, X and Martinez, M. (2019). Deltamethrin toxicity: A review of oxidative stress and metabolism. Environmental Research, Volume 170 : 260-281
Luo, Y. and Zhang, M. (2011). Environmental Modeling and Exposure Assessment of Sediment-Associated Pyrethroids in an Agricultural Watershed. Soil sciences 2011, 6 pages
Maduma, E.P., Moore, S.J., Moore, J., Mbuba, E., Mbeyela, E.M., Kibondo, U.A., Mmbaga, S. C., Kobe, D., Baraka, J., Msellemu, D., Swai, J. K,, Mboma, Z. M. and Odufuwa, O. G. (2022).“In starvation, a bone can also be meat”: a mixed methods evaluation of factors associated with discarding of long-lasting insecticidal nets in Bagamoyo, Tanzania. Malaria Journal 21:101 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-022-04126-5
Mboma, Z.M., Festo, C, Lorenz, L.M., Massue, D.J, Kisinza, W.N., Bradley, J., Moore, J.D. Mandike, R., Akim, I., Lines, J., Overgaard, H.J. and Sarah, S.J. (2021).The consequences of declining population access to insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) on net use patterns and physical degradation of nets after 22 months of ownership. Malaria Journal, 20:171
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-021-03686-2
Meyer, B.N., Lam, C., Moore, S. and Jones, R.L. (2013). Laboratory Degradation Rates of 11 Pyrethroids under Aerobic and Anaerobic Conditions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2013, 61, 4702-4708.
Mishra, P., Tyagi, B.K., Chandrasekaran, N. Mukherjee, A (2018). Biological nanopesticides: a greener approach towards the mosquito vector control. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25, 10151–10163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9640-y
Munywoki, D.N., Kokwaro, E.D., Mwangangi, J.M., Muturi, E. J. and Mbogo, C.M.. Insecticide resistance status in Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) in coastal Kenya. Parasites Vectors (2021) 14:207 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-021-04706-5
Mutalemwa, P.P., Massue, D.J., Kisoka, W.J., Munga, M.A., Kabula, B. and Kisinza, W.A. (2018). “Should We Take Them or Leave Them?” A Qualitative Study to Understand the Social, Cultural, and Ethical Issues Associated With the Lifecycle Management of Insecticide-Treated Nets in Tanzania. East African Health Research Journal, 2 (2): 135-141
Nasuti, C., Cantalamessa, F., Falcioni, G. and Gabbianelli, R. (2003). Different effects of Type I and Type II pyrethroids on erythrocyte plasma membrane properties and enzymatic activity in rats. Toxicology. 191, 233-244.
Ngonghala, C.N. (2022). Assessing the impact of insecticide-treated nets in the face of insecticide resistance on malaria control. Journal of Theoretical Biology, Volume 555
Nyangi, M., Kigondu, E., Irungu, B., Nganga, M., Gachanja, A., Murigi, M., Nyangacha, R., Muniu, E., Kamau, L. and Gathirwa, J. (2021). Integrity, use and care of long-lasting insecticidal nets in Kirinyaga County, Kenya. BMC Public Health 21:856. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10882-x
Okumu, F.O and Moore, S.J. (2011). Combining indoor residual spraying and insecticide-treated nets for malaria control in Africa: a review of possible outcomes and an outline of suggestions for the future. Malaria Journal, 10:208
Osoro, J.K., Machani, M.G., Ochomo, E., Wanjala, C., Omukunda, E., Munga, S., Githeko, A.K., Yan, G. and Afrane, Y.A. (2021). Insecticide resistance exerts significant fitness costs in immature stages of Anopheles gambiae in western Kenya. Malaria Journal, 20:259 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-021-03798-5
Ramanantsoa, A., Wilson Barthes, M., Rahenintsoa, R., Hoibak, S., Ranaivoharimina, H., Rahelimalala, M.D., Rakotomanga, A., Finlay, A., Ribera, J.M. and Grietens, K.P. (2017). Can the collection of expired long-lasting insecticidal nets reduce their coverage and use? Sociocultural aspects related to LLIN life cycle management and use in four districts in Madagascar. Malar J (2017) 16:404. DOI 10.1186/s12936-017-2053-z
Rana, A.K., Mishra, W.K., Gupta, V.K., and Thakur, V.K. (2021). Sustainable materials in the removal of pesticides from contaminated water: Perspective on macro to nanoscale cellulose. Science of The Total Environment, 797: 149129
Ravula, A.R. and Yenugu, S.. (2021). Pyrethroid based pesticides – Chemical and biological aspects. Critical Reviews 2021.
Sanou, A., Nelli, L., MoussaGuelbéogo, W., Cissé, F., Tapsoba, M., Ouédraogo, P., Sagnon, N, Ranson, H., Matthiopoulos, J. and Ferguson, H.F. (2021). Insecticide resistance and behavioural adaptation as a response to long lasting insecticidal net deployment in malaria vectors in the Cascades region of Burkina Faso. Scientific Reports, 11:17569. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-96759-w
Santos, E.M. and Curtis, T.M. (2021). The Unsustainability of Long-Lasting Insecticidal Nets. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 105, (5): 876–878 DOI:
Skovmand, O. and Bosselmann, R. (2011). Strength of bed nets as function of denier, knitting pattern, texturizing and polymer. Malaria Journal, 10:8
Sun, C., Zeng, Z., Cui, H., Verheggen, F., (2020). Polymer-based nanoinsecticides: Current developments, environmental risks and future challenges. A review. Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Env. 24, 59–69. https://doi.org/10.25518/1780-4507.18497.
Tchouakui, M., Assatse, T., Tazokong, H.R, Oruni A., Menze, B.D, Nguiffo Nguete, D., Mugenzi, L.M.J, Kayondo, J., Watsenga, F., Mzilahowa, T., Osae, M. and Wondji, C.S. (2023).Detection of a reduced susceptibility to chlorfenapyr in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae contrasts with full susceptibility in Anopheles funestus across Africa. Scientific Reports, 13:2363 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-29605-w
Tungu,P.K , Michael, E., Sudi, W., Kisinza, W.W. and Rowland, M. (2021). Efficacy of interceptor® G2, a long-lasting insecticide mixture net treated with chlorfenapyr and alpha-cypermethrin against Anopheles funestus: experimental hut trials in north-eastern Tanzania. Malaria Journal, 20:180 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-021-03716-
UNICEF (2020). Long-lasting insecticidal Nets: Supply Update
UNICEF (2022). Long-lasting insecticidal Nets: Supply Update
US Dept. of Health & Human Services: Agency for Toxic Substances & Diseases Registry. Sept. 2003. Toxicological Profile for Pyrethrins and Pyrethroids. (accessed Jan 2006) www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp155pdf
WHO (2005). Guidelines for laboratory and field testing of long-lasting insecticidal mosquito nets. Geneva: World Health Organization
WHO (2014). Recommendations on the sound management of old long-lasting insecticidal nets. Geneva: World Health Organization
WHO (2015). Global Technical Strategy for malaria 2016-2030. ISBN 978 92 4 156499 1
WHO (2022). World malaria report 2022. ISBN 978-92-4-006489-8
World Health Organization (2021). World malaria report 2021. ISBN 978-92-4-004049-6
Worrall, E., Were, V., Matope, A., Gama, E., Olewe, J., Mwambi, D., Desai, M., Kariuki, S., Buff, A.M., and Niessen, L.W. (2020). Coverage outcomes (effects), costs, costeffectiveness, and equity of two combinations of long-lasting insecticidal net (LLIN) distribution channels in Kenya: a two-arm study under operational conditions. BMC Public Health, 20:1870 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09846-4
Xu, J., Jin, J., Lei, L. and Tao, J. (2021). Research on mosquito repellent performance of bamboo-polyester blended anti-mosquito yarn seamless knitted fabric. International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology. ISSN: 0955-6222
Yang, C., Lim, W. and Song, G. (2020). Mediation of oxidative stress toxicity induced by pyrethroid pesticides in fish Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology. 234:, 108758 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpc.2020.108758
Ye, Z., Zhang, L., Huang, Q. and Tan, Z. (2019). Development of a carbon-based slow-release fertilizer treated by bio-oil coating and study on its feedback effect on farmland application. Journal of cleaner production, 239:118085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118085
Copyright (c) 2023 Sichangi Kasili, PhD, Cornelius Wanjala, PhD
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
