East African Journal of Forestry and Agroforestry

Can On-Farm Wood Meet the Global Wood Supply and Save Tropical Forests? A Systematic Review

Jane M. Mutune, Peter A. Minang, Lalisa Duguma, Priscilla Wainaina — Sat, 10 Feb 2024 09:16:34 +0000

Global wood supply is faced with an annual escalating scarcity threat by population growth and increased wood demand. Natural forests, a chief source of wood, are under pressure from massive deforestation and degradation, whereas plantation forests are faced with challenges of land tenure and competition from other land uses. This systematic review aimed to point out the contribution of on-farm trees to global wood supply and tropical forest conservation. The study adopted the Sample-Phenomenon of Interest-Design-Evaluation-Research type framework to identify relevant literature. Both grey and peer-reviewed publications were considered. Of the 3800 publications identified, 42 substantially met the inclusion criteria and were selected for data extraction. A huge imbalance was evident in the wood supply and demand that forest production could not satisfy alone. On-farm trees were observed to be a significant alternative source of wood supply in South Africa, India, and Kenya, supplying 27, 36, and 70 per cent of total apparent consumption, respectively. Where importation reliance was low and a low forest production rate, on-farm trees contributed more than 50% of the total apparent consumption. China had a high reliance on importation. On-farm trees contributed at least a supply of 8% of total apparent consumption. On-farm trees were the chief source of wood fuel. On-farm trees contribute substantially to the supply chain of industrial roundwood, woodfuel, and sawn wood, reducing the need to infiltrate the forests. Where the full potential of on-farm trees is inadequately exploited, on-farm trees can sustainably contribute to the wood supply chain and save tropical forests

Historical Trend Analysis and Future Projections of Rainfall in Amhara, Ethiopia

Antensay Mekoya, Moges Molla, Mulatu Workneh, Tewachew Worku — Sun, 18 Feb 2024 11:55:14 +0000

Understanding rainfall trends & projections is essential for water resource management. This study showed historical (1981-2020) and future (2021-2100) rainfall amounts and trends across 71 grid points separated by 0.44^o in Amhara and Amhara’s five rainfall regimes (A3, A4, A5U, A5L, A6). Ground and satellite merged historical data from Ethiopia Meteorology Institute (EMI) and the Rossby Centre Regional Atmospheric Model (RCA) forced by an ensemble of the best-performed Global Circulation Models (GCMs) in Amhara, HadGEM2-ES of UK and MPI-ESM-LR of Germany, in three Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenarios, RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5 from CORDEX project were the basis of dataset. Amhara’s annual, seasonal, and monthly historical rainfall trends mostly increased. During Jun-Sep (Kiremt), lower rainfall receiving regimes (A6, A5L, A5U) had a significant increasing trend (~ 4 mm/year), while wetter regimes (A3 & A4) had a non-significant increasing (< 1 mm/year) and decreasing (~ -0.5 mm/year) trends, respectively. Generally, compared to the climatology, the annual and Kiremt rainfall in Amhara is projected to increase in the near-term (2021-2040) and mid-term (2041-2060) and decrease in the long-term (2081-2100); Oct-Jan (Bega) rainfall is projected to increase in all future terms and all RCP scenarios while Feb-May (Belg) rainfall will be abrupt

Culm Density and Biomass Variation across Forest Type and Age Gradient of Oxytenanthera abyssinica (A. Rich.) Munro, in north-western Ethiopia

Habtamu Achenef Tesema, Asabeneh Alemayehu, Beyene Belay — Fri, 23 Feb 2024 16:05:01 +0000

Lowland bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica) forest resources are most promising in Northwestern Ethiopia. The area's surrounding bamboo forest is significant both environmentally, economically, and socially. Nonetheless, no particular research has been done to ascertain the differences in biomass for the various sections of bamboo in both plantations and natural bamboo stands. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the culm density and biomass variation across forest type and age gradients of Oxytenanthera abyssinica stand in Pawe, northwestern Ethiopia. One hundred eight (108) bamboo culms (54 from the plantations and 54 from the natural bamboo stands) were sampled destructively. After that, each of the specimens was divided into three sections (leaf, branch, and culm). The fresh weight of the sample and the total fresh weight of each portion were ascertained instantly. Then, samples were brought to the testing center for dry weight analysis, bundled in a paper bag. The data was subjected to descriptive statistical analysis employing R software. As the result showed, the mean height and diameter for the plantation stand ranged between 9, 13.2 m, 3.4 cm, and 6.4 cm, respectively, and the natural bamboo forest has mean height and diameter ranging between 6.35 and 12 m and 2.0 and 4.4 cm, respectively. The mean density of 0.51 g/cm³ for plantations and 0.41 g/cm³ for natural bamboo forests was recorded. Compared to natural forests, managed bamboo forests (stands) exhibit an increase of 17% in overall biomass production. While density rose with age, the medium-aged bamboo group in both forest types accumulated more above-ground biomass than the younger and older age groups

Genetic Diversity of Bamboo (Yushinia alpina) Borer Larvae in the Mau Forest Complex, Kenya

Jackson Bwalya, Calleb Olweny, PhD, Donald Chungu, PhD — Fri, 23 Feb 2024 17:14:14 +0000

Bamboo borer larvae have caused major losses of bamboo cover in natural forests and plantations. Lack of information on the fauna of bamboo trees has been cited as the contributing factor to poor management of bamboo stands. Genetic diversity information helps understand the effects of different fauna in guiding management plans. Genetic diversity information has recently become an important tool in conservation science. This paper aimed to determine the genetic diversity of the bamboo borer larvae in the Mau Forest complex in order to generate information that could guide the management and conservation of bamboo trees (Yushinia Alpina) in the Mau Forest Complex. The mitochondrial C oxidase Subunit 1 (COI) of 12 isolates was sequenced and analyzed. A similarity search of the bamboo borer larvae was carried out using the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) BLAST search to identify the larvae species. The genetic diversity and genetic pairwise distances were determined, and Tajimas D and Nei’s FU Fs statistics were calculated to estimate the population expansion that has occurred. The results showed genetic diversity (haplotype diversity 0.956) in the bamboo borer larvae population of the Mau Forest Complex. The nucleotide diversity (0.283) was found to be low. The similarity search showed that the bamboo borer larvae of Yushinia alpina belonged to four (4) species of noctuid larvae (Lepidoptera). The identity matches to the similar species scored an average of 94%. The Tajimas D (0.374) and FUs Fs (5.547) collectively indicated no rare excess mutations in the population. The results reveal high genetic diversity, which is key in the management of forest species

Morphological Characteristics and Growth Performance of Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. Ex J. C. Wendl in Selected Agro-Ecologies of Uganda

Fri, 08 Mar 2024 06:48:42 +0000

Bamboo is a versatile and valuable resource that has been shown to have social, ecological, and economic benefits in many countries worldwide. Even though Uganda has a suitable environment for bamboo growth, it remains underutilized. One of the key challenges in promoting bamboo farming is the need for more information about the growth performance of different bamboo species in various site conditions. Therefore, this study determined the morphological characteristics and growth performance of Bambusa vulgaris in Uganda. A total of 24 bamboo farms were selected from a list of bamboo farmers provided by key informants using stratified sampling. These farms had relatively uniform B. vulgaris stands and were drawn from Uganda's three agro-ecological zones (AEZs): the Southwestern, West Nile, and Lake Victoria crescent agro-ecological zones. Eight temporary sample plots were established in each zone, and various growth parameters were measured. One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) followed by Sidak post-hoc test was used to compare the performance of B. vulgaris across the different agro-ecological zones based on growth parameters. The results of the study showed that the total above-ground biomass was highest in the Lake Victoria crescent (24.773 kg/ha), followed by the West Nile (17.141 kg/ha) and the Southwestern (15.125 kg/ha) agro-ecological zones. The growth rate of B. vulgaris after three years was found to be similar to the outstanding growth rate mentioned in the literature. The growth performance of B. vulgaris was notably better in the L. Victoria crescent compared to the West Nile and Southwestern highlands – suggesting that efforts to promote the growing of B. vulgaris should prioritize the L. Victoria crescent agro-ecological zone. Overall, this study provides valuable information on the growth performance of B. vulgaris in different agro-ecological zones in Uganda. This information can be used to guide the promotion and development of bamboo farming in the country, which has the potential to improve livelihoods and contribute to sustainable development

Relevance of Remote Sensing and its Applications in Forestry. A Critical Review

Sintayehu Getie, Asabeneh Alemayehu, Antensay Mekoya — Wed, 13 Mar 2024 09:21:11 +0000

For several nations who are developing, forests play a crucial role in rural life. Due to the incredible challenges associated with staff, logistics, and chronological consistency of field-based surveys for forest management, a variety of sources of data obtained by airborne, space-borne, and terrestrial remote sensing sensors are now essential sources of knowledge for studies on the spatiotemporal patterns of forests. Most recently, understanding of forests and their conservation has been derived primarily from satellite imagery. The process of organizing and carrying out procedures for the management and use of forests can be done with the assistance of remote sensing in order to achieve economic, social, cultural, and environmental goals. Satellite remote sensing has been providing ever-more-advanced knowledge about woodland structure, management, monitoring, and oversight whenever the first civilian earth-observing program was launched. This article reviewed the application of remote sensing on forestry. Data were gathered from published research papers, books, internet resources, and expert observation. Remote sensing’s synoptic view, availability in a rage of spatial-temporal scales, high degree of homogeneity, inexpensiveness as well as the increasing trend in availability make it special in forest science. As observed from the review, remote sensing technology is critical in forest management. It helps to provide up to date information on forest cover change, forest fire, forest disturbance, forest wildlife management, forest biomass and others. Remote sensing is vital in providing scientific information in forest resources monitoring and management

Smallholder Farmers' Local Practices Underpinning the Use of Agroforestry Technologies in Uganda's Mt. Elgon Region

Florence Birungi Kyazze, Fred Kalanzi, Isaac Kiyingi, Esther Sebuliba — Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:15:34 +0000

Mt. Elgon is a unique cross-border afro-montane ecosystem that has always provided vital essential goods and services for human livelihoods. However, with the increasing population density, forest degradation has become a significant issue, resulting in a rise in landslides, mudslides, pest and disease outbreaks, and reduced land productivity. Recently, it has been realized that many smallholder farmers have incorporated trees into their farming systems using indigenous knowledge. This indicates that smallholder farmers’ profound knowledge regarding tree use and management has reminded us that farmers have always been privy to much information regarding tree use and management accumulated over the years. This study aims to investigate how smallholder farmers' local practices enhance the use of agroforestry technologies in the eastern highlands of Uganda. This information will help develop and promote agroforestry practices that are acceptable to farmers. The study employed a case study approach, collecting data from 12 smallholder farmers over four months. The results indicate that smallholder farmers use local practices to enhance tree seedling survival, optimize space, and shorten the waiting time for tree-related benefits. Although some of their practices may not align with the desired outcome of farm productivity, further validation is needed to understand how they can be integrated into mainstream agroforestry research and development

The Role of Remote Sensing in Forest Cover Changes in Butambala District, Central Uganda

Sarah Namayengo, Upton Nuwagira — Sat, 16 Mar 2024 08:51:11 +0000

Natural forests in Uganda have experienced changes which must be quantified to inform future forest resource management and avoid the danger of reduced ecosystem service benefits. The primary purpose of this study was to assess forest changes in Butambala District by employing remote sensing techniques and GIS tehniques. The original contribution is the capacity to detect Central Forest Reserve cover decline using remote sensing in the study area for a 27-year period (1995-2020). Landsat 5 and Sentinel 2 images were processed using a supervised image classification approach to identify and quantify land use/cover changes. The study results indicated that the district has undergone land cover/use changes over the last 27 years. The prevailing changes in the district from 1995 to 2022 were expansions of built-up areas from (0.54% to 4.22%), agriculture from (42.38% to 79%), and decreases in grassland from (29.9% to 0%), natural forest cover from (14.07% to 5.9%), wetland from (8.24% to 7.9%), tree plantation from (4.87% to 3.3%). The changes threaten the environment and quality of life of people. Therefore, there is need to take critical and practical measures to regulate land use and landcover changes and conserve natural resources in Butambala District

Comparative Carbon Stock Potential of Indigenous Agroforestry Systems in Silte Wereda, Southern Ethiopia

Mihert Semere, Chala Tadesse, Tesemash Abebe, Abirham Cherinet, Marta Gebreyesus — Mon, 22 Apr 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Agroforestry system (AFS) is described as one of the promising mitigation options for climate change through its high carbon sequestration capacity. This study was conducted in Silite District; Southern Ethiopia to assess the unaccounted carbon stock potential of selected traditional agroforestry systems. The study assessed the carbon stock potential of AFS biomass and soil carbon pools. Biomass and soil samples were taken from temporary plots laid for this study, 20 × 20 m for home garden, 50 × 100 m for parkland, and 10 × 10 m for woodlot AFS. Height (H) and diameter at breast height (DBH) were taken from the sample plots to estimate biomass carbon. Litter, herb, and grass samples were collected from 1 m2 quadrant within the main plot. The findings show that the total biomass carbon ranged from (1.28-7 Mg ha -1) though there was no significant difference among the systems and higher biomass carbon was attributed by parkland AFS while the lowest was woodlot. A significantly higher amount of SOC was recorded in home garden AFS along the two depths (82.5 Mg ha -1) than the other two systems and the lowest was attributed to parkland (41.7 Mg ha -1). Therefore, this traditional AFS should be supported for their contributions in climate change mitigation schemes as they can sequester a reasonable amount of carbon

Impact of Fine Sediment on Benthic Macroinvertebrates Communities of Freshwater Ecosystem: A Review

Kebebush Mulat, Antensay Mekoya — Tue, 30 Apr 2024 12:22:54 +0000

The freshwater environment in Ethiopia is exposed to severe human influence because of fast population growth and other factors. Anthropogenic activities in developing countries such as river regulation and pollution have a potentially negative cumulative impact on water quantity and quality of the rivers and wetlands, hence negatively impacting benthic invertebrates and fishes. This review aims to identify the impacts of fine sediment on the community of benthic macroinvertebrates, and freshwater food webs, and to assess the response of benthic invertebrates to fine sediment pollution. Literature review was used as a methodology. Fine segment load on the freshwater ecosystem from both point and nonpoint sources may directly/indirectly alter the macroinvertebrate communities. Organic and inorganic contaminants as well as other sediment variables (sediment grain size, total organic carbon, nutrients, etc.) were affecting the community composition of benthic invertebrates. However, habitat features like the number of supplements or the silt grain measure clarify the variation in macroinvertebrate indices and metrics. The impact of metals and, to a lesser extent, organic contaminants may also be significant. Benthic macroinvertebrates are commonly used indicators of river ecological conditions that can be adversely affected by fine sediment loads. Sedimentation can change the suitability of the substrate for some taxa, increase macroinvertebrate drift, and affect respiration and feeding. To conclude, excessive fine sediment severely alters the structure and function of macroinvertebrates. At the regional and national levels, different governmental and non-governmental organizations, research institutions, and policy makers are recommended to take responsibility for reducing sediment discharge to the freshwater ecosystem by applying different conservation measures of benthic macroinvertebrates.

Collaboration or Contravention? Ramifications For Effective Participatory Decision-Making in Collaborative Forest Management at Echuya Central Forest Reserve, South Western Uganda

Medard Twinamatsiko, PhD, Stephen Gumisiriza Bugabo — Fri, 03 May 2024 12:16:41 +0000

Participatory decision-making has been extensively adopted worldwide as an essential mechanism and a good governance principle to reach a consensus in natural resource management. However, in most communities, local people who depend on forests are not involved in the decision-making process regarding conserving protected areas. This research assesses the ramifications of collaboration or contravention on effective participatory decision-making in collaborative forest management in Echuya Central Forest Reserve. It provides insights into how community consultations and participation of forest-adjacent communities in planning meetings influence the conservation of protected areas. We collected data from a total of 639 respondents, including Collaborative Forest Management (CFM) group members and non-CFM community members, government institutions, conservation organizations, and local community leaders, using semi-structured questionnaires, interview guides, and Focus Group Discussion guides. Results indicate that community consultations allow CFM stakeholders, particularly community members, to give ideas on how such projects can be implemented without destroying forest resources, promoting the goal of conserving the forest reserve. Community members’ participation in planning meetings allows them to contribute ideas about relevant and appropriate forest conservation approaches. However, the National Forestry Authority (NFA) and other non-community actor groups dominate the decision-making process mainly because the NFA has the legal mandate to manage the forest reserve on behalf of the Government. We concluded that the connivance of government forestry officials with unauthorized forest resource users undermines the spirit of participatory decision-making. Dishonesty and lack of accountability hampered effective participatory decision-making, and low attendance at meetings undermines effective participation in decision-making. Thus, community members’ consistent attendance of meetings is paramount for positive outcomes of participatory decision-making for the conservation of forests

The Roles of the Small and Medium Enterprises along the Forest-Based Value Chain in Ruvuma Region, Tanzania

Mon, 27 May 2024 08:04:43 +0000

Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) contribute to the nation in both an economic and social sphere. However, the information on the roles which SMEs play in the forest-based value chains is inadequate Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess the roles that Small and Medium Enterprises play along forest-based value chains in Ruvuma region. A cross-sectional research design was adopted where two districts (Songea urban and rural) were purposively chosen due to their forest value chain potentials and the availability of Small and Medium Enterprises. 120 enterprises/entrepreneurs were randomly selected and used in this study. Interviews and questionnaires were used to obtain primary data on entrepreneur demographic and socio-economic characteristics and the different roles they play along the value chain which included the market information, product pricing, business promotion, product packaging and value addition activities. Descriptive analysis was performed on the collected data where Microsoft Excel software was employed. The findings revealed that mobile phones were the most used means of obtaining and transmitting market information and business promotion, product pricing is done according to the entrepreneurs’ consideration, baskets were the major means of product packaging and value addition activities were carried out. The study concluded that the Small and Medium Enterprises do in fact play various roles along the forest-based value chain. These findings can be used as a basis for further research and knowledge provision to the entrepreneurs

Socio-Economic Drivers of Agroforestry Practices in Kaiti Watershed, Makueni County, Kenya

Vallary Mutave Ngila, Raphael Mulaha Kweyu, PhD, Susan Wanjiru Mbuthia, PhD — Tue, 28 May 2024 08:09:38 +0000

Forests and trees are essential resources for sustainable provision of goods and services. However, trees have not only been depleted in reserved forests but also on agricultural lands. Several measures have been formulated to improve forest cover in Kenya and one of such strategies is agroforestry. This study aimed to examine agroforestry practices, tree density on farms and determine the relationship between socio-economic characteristics of households and tree density on farms in Kaiti watershed, Makueni County, Kenya. Quadrats were used to determine tree density and tree species diversity on farms while questionnaires were used to record socio-economic characteristics of households. Data files were prepared in the Microsoft Excel and SPSS version 20 software where descriptive and inferential statistics were used. The study found 8 agroforestry practices. The results of One-Way ANOVA for both Shannon Diversity Index and Simpsons’ Index of Diversity showed significant difference in species diversity in Kaiti watershed with p-value of 0.00023 and 0.00012, respectively. The mean of tree density was 104.5 trees per acre where 54% of farms had less than 40 trees per acre while 46% of farms had more than 40 trees per acre. Further, the study found significant relationship between socio-economic characteristics of households and tree density on farms. Household income was the most significant with p-value of 0.000. The study recommends sensitization of farmers about importance of trees and suitable tree species for growing in arid and semi-arid areas. Further, supply of certified seedlings close to farmers and at affordable prices would improve tree species diversity and tree density on farms. There is also need for private land ownership for households to promote sense of ownership of trees

Gender-Related Dynamics and Factors Influencing Transition to Green Economy Among Rural Communities Within the Forestry Sector

Thu, 13 Jun 2024 06:48:35 +0000

The Green Economy, a methodology that supports the harmonious interaction between humans and nature, has been gaining attention since 1989. It focuses on alternative energy sources, sustainable agriculture, wildlife protection, and environmental policies. Kenya’s forest cover is below the global minimum of 10%, and deforestation is increasing at a rate of 5,000 hectares per annum. The research aims to enhance opportunities for green economy development in the forestry sector while minimizing challenges and to bridge the gap between Green Economy development and the forestry sector, address weak policy coordination among ministries and government agencies, and compare green economy statuses with related forest policy analysis. The research uses diverse policies to guide green economy practices in the forestry sector, aiming to interlink them and reduce conflicts. The research was conducted within nine counties in the Lake Victoria Basin Region. The results revealed disparities in gender participation across various preferred green economy activities, with women in rural areas being significantly involved in the initiation of community management programs; however, there was a notable gender disparity in the decision-making process, with women only contributing 20.2% compared to the male counterpart with 79.8%. The main sources of funds for green activities are from internal budgets of organizations (36.5%), businesses (19.1%) and contributions from family and chamas (15.9%), all geared towards building the green economy. The research reveals that the green economy reduces Kenya’s natural resource pressure, boosts economic growth, and improves business competitiveness. However, the proportion of different genders in the green economy is undervalued, especially in developing countries. Governments must act to reduce gender inequality in labour markets to ensure the benefits of the green economy are realized. In conclusion, the green economy presents new opportunities for women. Still, they may be deprived of the potential benefits unless governments implement structural reforms to reduce gender inequality in labour markets

Empowering Rural Women through Agroforestry Practices; The Case of The Mount Oku Forest Region, Cameroon

Jicenta N. Foncha, PhD, Thaka H. Eforkwe — Thu, 20 Jun 2024 07:34:53 +0000

Agroforestry is gaining grounds among women who have traditionally played important role in agricultural production. Benefits derived from agroforestry has addressed the multiple challenges linked to inadequate arable land, low productivity, socio-cultural barriers among others. This study assessed agroforestry practices of women in Male Headed Households (MHH) and Female Headed Households (FHH), in the Mount Oku Region of Cameroon. Institutional analysis and developmental framework were used to study the conditions for effective agroforestry management strategies. The study: identified farms and crops /trees planted by women in MHHs and FHHs; examined the enabling conditions that favoured agroforestry practices; assessed the benefits before and after agroforestry project as they influence livelihood strategies. Based on the existence of frontline and secondary villages, three Forest Management Institution (FMI) were randomly selected from the tribes that make up the Kilum/ Ijum Forest Project. Selected Participatory Rural Appraisal tools were employed to obtain relevant data. Farms in MHH were from 2 ha and above with more trees for commercial purpose and long-term benefits (timber); while FHH were 2 ha but inclined to indigenous, fast growing trees for subsistence use (firewood, soil fertility improvement, fodder, fruits). The enabling conditions included: access to extension services, improved technology, market information, access to credit facilities and institutional settings; the benefits were: improved agricultural production, increased school attendance and combating child labour, increased employment and end of daily wages, diverse livelihood options, increased household income, sustainable fuelwood production, improve soil fertility, reduced weed incidence. The test of hypotheses revealed that there exist a significant difference in the benefit before and after agroforestry project as they influence livelihood strategies (Z = -35.00, p = 0.000). The study recommended the government, integrates agroforestry in agricultural development programs

Distribution, Diversity and Role of the Trees outside Forest in the Mount Kenya East Region

Nyaga David Mwenda, Catherine Lukhoba, Gilbert Ouma — Sun, 30 Jun 2024 16:02:57 +0000

Globally, Trees outside the Forests (TOF) are essential for providing a range of ecosystem services, which lessens the demand placed on protected forests. However, the majority of native tree species outside the forests are in danger of destruction because of the effects of climate change and the increased human population in the Sahel Africa. One of the ecosystems with TOF that has experienced extensive changes due to anthropogenic disturbance is Mount Kenya East Region. The objectives of this study were to establish: The diversity and distribution of native TOF, the drivers of change in TOF cover and the role of TOF in supporting the local livelihoods. This study used a mixed technique approach that included questionnaires, interviews, PGIS, and ecological surveys. SPSS was used to analyse the data. A total of 2145 individual trees distributed in 102 species were identified in the study area with 36% of the individuals being native while 64% were exotic. Additionally, 16 of the native tree species including Pachystela brevipes, Carissa spinarum L., Faurea saligna, Delonix electa and Vitex doneana among others, previously known to the area, had disappeared, resulting in a broad loss of ecosystem functions. Across the altitudinal gradient, the perceptions of the respondents on the loss of ecosystem services were variable. Herbicide use on farms, industrial firewood, agricultural diversification, and shifting cultural values were cited as the primary causes of the change in TOF cover in the study area. The surviving native TOF were found in public institutions, road reserves, riverine and protected places and on farms. In conclusion, there is an urgent need to continually protect the remnants of indigenous TOF because the region will lose some ecosystem services exclusively obtained from native species if the business as usual is continued