African Journal of History and Geography

An Anatomy of Ethnic Gangsterism and Militant Nationalism in Kenya: The Case of Nairobi, 1940-1963

Antony Kimani Murathi — Mon, 27 Jan 2025 13:33:31 +0200

Towards the end of the 1940s, Nairobi was characterized by momentous political conflict. A large proportion of Africans were said to be living outside the confines of colonial supervision, a situation that resulted in gangsterism and serious anarchy. Extensive research has been carried out on various dimensions of this episode, revealing that militarism and anarchy were deeply rooted in unresolved issues revolving around economic deprivation and the political exclusion of Africans by the colonial authorities. Some aspects of this violent agitation however remain unexplored. It’s demonstrated in this study that the urban poor in post-1945 Nairobi, pushed to the limits of human endurance, created their own alternative society in clandestine opposition to the forces of law and order. Examining the anarchy, however, reveals a nexus between anti-colonial militancy and ethnic acrimony. The study reveals that tribalism remained an important influence on daily life and political allegiances in the African locations. Armed with various weapons, Kikuyu gangs roamed the streets, terrorizing people of other communities. The spate of militant activity in Nairobi alienated the non-Kikuyu elements in the African population. Anti-colonial militarism thus had far-reaching implications on inter-ethnic relations in Nairobi. The ethnic question remained critical in political transitions that took place in Nairobi city in the post-Mau Mau period. The study was carried out in Nairobi County, particularly in the colonial ‘African locations’ of Pumwani and Shauri Moyo. It entailed the collection and analysis of data from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data was collected from oral informants and the Kenya National Archives while secondary data came from newspapers, books, magazines and dissertations. Data was then corroborated and both context and content analysis were done to guarantee consistency, reliability and validity of the information. A historical research design based on qualitative procedures was employed. Interpretation was done within the Marxist theoretical framework. Marxists hold that social and political behaviour can be reduced to economic motives, and ethnicity is an important force in political behaviour.

The Rise and Fall of Lokichogio Town

Jacqueline Wanjiku — Wed, 29 Jan 2025 11:54:02 +0200

Urbanization in Kenya has faced numerous challenges. Especially, a decline in humanitarian operations in towns located at the borders. This article examines Lokichoggio town’s urban growth and challenges that eventually led to the fall of the town. The article argues that Lokichoggio town began to experience growth due to numerous non-governmental organizations set up in the town. This was done particularly to assist victims of the Sudan civil war. Lokichoggio was later abandoned due to inactive airports, poor urban planning, insecurity and competition from Kakuma and Lodwar towns that now offer affordable accommodation and conference services. The collapse of the luxury hotels, as well as the abandoned compounds of the International Committee of the Red Cross amongst other non-governmental organizations that are struggling to stay afloat greatly affected the economic growth of the town, since a lot of economic activities were pegged on the existence of humanitarian organizations. The article also highlights other urban challenges facing Lokichoggio and finally proposes developments meant to ensure the sustainable development of the town. Current developments being witnessed in the town critique modernization theory which posits that modernization is a unilinear process. The urbanization process of Lokichoggio has not been a unilinear process

Gender Dimensions of Aguu (Socially Excluded Youth) in Gulu City, Northern Uganda

Patrick Ochen, Agatha Alidri, Patrick Kabwijamu — Sun, 02 Feb 2025 15:48:26 +0200

The African social philosophical sense of ‘Ubuntu’ (‘I am because we are’) and the notion ‘it takes a whole village to raise a child’ is at crossroads in the post-conflict Acholi sub-region in Northern Uganda. Society has relegated its social responsibility and moral values to bringing up children. This study fostered a gender-responsive approach to addressing the Aguu phenomenon in Gulu City. The term ‘Aguu’ does not have an accepted single definition. However, it is used to refer to a group of children and persons between the ages of 6 to 35 years who consider the street as their home and family. This makes the concept of ‘family and home’ fluid and temporal. Whereas society considers them a source of insecurity, this study views them as a ‘floating population’ who have been pulled or pushed into the streets by social, economic, and political factors. The study employed a qualitative and ethnohistorical approach, involving individual interviews, focus group discussions, participant observations, archival work, and literature review. The study perceived the Aguu as a distinct social network with a unique agency, identity and culture. The street affects the genders differently. Gender-specific vulnerabilities were evident, perpetuating their social marginalisation and exclusion. Understanding the gender dynamic and dimensions of the Aguu phenomenon is essential for crafting sustainable solutions and interventions. These interventions must be gender-responsive, addressing the unique vulnerabilities and experiences of male and female Aguu members.

The Influence of Colonial Economic Policies on Agricultural Development in Independent Kenya: 1954 To 1992

Basiliano Samoei, Paul Opondo, PhD, Paul Kurgat, PhD — Thu, 13 Feb 2025 15:44:14 +0200

Historical and contemporary evidence indicates that the colonial government did not make a large-scale effort to develop African agriculture before the 1950s. The emergent African Land Utilization Scheme (ALUS) of 1946 later renamed the African Land Development Board (ALDEV) policy in 1947 objectively focused on ‘communalism’ as agricultural philosophical thought and tackled emerging issues of land usage crisis, land degradation and resettlement to reduce the strain on land. The first large-scale comprehensive post-war colonial plan for promoting African agricultural development was titled the 'Swynnerton Plan' of 1954 called for the intensification of land use in African areas. It was later supplemented by the Land Development and Settlement Board (LDSB) schemes of 1961 – 62, which addressed emerging land issues in addition to integrating Africans into the capitalist economy. This colonial agricultural policy sought to improve African agriculture development through large-scale commercialization of smallholder mixed-farming but failed to achieve the desired objectives in independent Kenya as farmers regressed to subsistence levels. Thus, the study evaluated the economic influence of colonial agricultural policy on Ndalat Settlement Scheme, Nandi County, Kenya. The study adopted a historical descriptive design with a sample size of 32 key informants conveniently sampled from 18 farmers, four cooperative officials, five pioneering settlement officials, two Ministry of Agriculture officials and three retired agricultural officers. Interviews were the main research instrument supplemented by archival and government policy documents. The findings indicated that the Ndalat settlement scheme was part of the colonial LDSB initiatives to resettle the landless Nandi people based on a loan facility under the Her Majesty Government scheme (assisted-owner schemes). The scheme was experimental in design and involved a resettlement programme from scratch. The scheme economically influenced the settlers by integrating them into the capitalist economy through land use intensification and commercialization of smallholding mixed farming systems (milk and maize) of 15 acres. Other important economic influences include; the institutionalized usage of statutory regulatory and marketing boards, individualization of land tenure, promotion of agrarian revolution, raising the economic productivity of land and institutionalization of cooperative societies as marketing agents. The study concluded that the policy largely failed to commercialize smallholding farming systems and ensure the continued subjugation to metropolitan London. The study recommends that the government rewrite a new agricultural policy to promote high-value crops, land intensification techniques and value-creation processing of crops..

Women, Indigenous Beer and Brewing for the Market: A Cottage ‘Industry’ in Colonial Nairobi: 1920 - 1939

Antony Kimani Murathi, Pius Kakai, PhD, Felistus Kinyanjui, PhD — Mon, 24 Feb 2025 13:35:50 +0200

Existing studies on women entrepreneurship in colonial Nairobi largely focused on women in prostitution, hawking and itinerant trade. Women in indigenous beer enterprise remained unstudied. This leaves a dearth in scholarship which this study sought to address. The objective of the study was to examine the development of entrepreneurial brewing of indigenous beer in Nairobi City from 1920 to 1939. The study discussed the factors that led to the rise of women’s indigenous beer enterprise and the reasons for its resilience in colonial Nairobi despite a raft of measures instituted by the colonial government to suppress it. It focused on continuities and changes that took place in indigenous beer production, marketing and consumption following the commoditization of traditional beer in Nairobi city in the early colonial period. The study employed a qualitative design based on a historical approach. Data was obtained from both primary and secondary sources. Collected data was verified for authenticity, consistency and reliability. It was then analyzed qualitatively and presented in line with the objective of the study. The study revealed that indigenous beer emerged as a factor in commercial life in African locations in Nairobi and was produced and sold by women. Measures adopted by the colonial government to control indigenous beer entrepreneurial activity of women largely failed to curtail it. This is because it provided inexpensive alcohol for the urban low-income earner, particularly during the Depression years. New techniques and tools replaced the traditional brewing tools and mechanisms. The traditional brewing tools and mechanisms were replaced by new techniques and tools. The study is significant because it provides important data on women’s domination of specific income-earning niches in the urban milieu in colonial Kenya.

Indigenous Food Production Practices Vis-a-Vis Western Culture: A Historical Study of Livestock Production Among the Abagusii of Kenya, 1904-1920

Ogora Felix, Herman Kiriama, PhD, Evans Nyamwaka, PhD — Mon, 24 Feb 2025 13:36:02 +0200

This paper examines how the Abagusii navigated through the imposition of Western culture on their indigenous livestock production practices. Pre-colonial livestock production among the Abagusii was embedded within their economic, social and cultural structures. However, the advent of British colonial rule and the influence of Christian missionaries precipitated profound transformations in livestock production disrupting its indigenous significance and functions. Drawing upon the frameworks of the Articulation of Modes of Production and Agency theories, this paper traces the historical evolution of livestock production among the Abagusii, delineating the trajectory from an indigenous socioeconomic pillar to a marginalized sector under Western culture. The study explores the impact of colonial taxation policies, land alienation, forced labour and the promotion of cash crop farming, which collectively undermined the indigenous livestock economy. Missionary influences further reshaped social and economic structures, as missionary education and religious conversion redirected labour away from livestock farming. Using a historical research design, data was methodically collected from archival sources, oral interviews, and secondary sources. Through thematic analysis, patterns emerged, illuminating how external forces gradually reshaped livestock production in Gusiiland. The study reveals that despite colonial disruptions, the Abagusii community exhibited resilience by adapting their livestock practices to the evolving economic landscape, integrating aspects of capitalist agriculture while striving to maintain elements of indigenous livestock rearing. Furthermore, the research uncovers how the introduction of missionary work altered Abagusii indigenous knowledge through the acquiring of missionary education pushing younger generations away from livestock farming toward wage labour and administrative roles. Despite these shifts, livestock continued to hold cultural significance, albeit in a diminished economic capacity. In essence, the transformation of livestock production among the Abagusii of Kenya epitomizes the complex interaction between indigenous, colonial economic policies and missionary interventions. While colonial capitalism and missionary efforts sought to restructure indigenous agricultural systems, the Abagusii community employed adaptive strategies that ensured the partial retention and modification of their livestock economy. The study advocates for contemporary policies aimed at revitalizing livestock farming among marginalized communities to incorporate historical insights, cultural sensitivity, and community-driven development approaches.

The Legacy of Colonial Policies on Agricultural Development in Independent Kenya; 1954 to 1992

Basiliano Samoei, Paul Opondo, PhD, Paul Kurgat, PhD — Tue, 25 Feb 2025 09:03:54 +0200

The LDSB schemes of 1961/62 formed the second phase and a continuation of the official colonial agricultural policy (Swynnerton Plan of 1954). However, the political situation in the immediate pre-independence period derailed its implementation as the Land Development and Settlement Board (LDSB) was disbanded on June 1st 1963 and replaced with the Central Land Board. It is the Central Land Board that supported the implementation of five-year 'one-million-acre’ schemes for the land purchase in the former ‘scheduled’ areas. From this background, the paper examines how the colonial agricultural policy initiated in 1954 continues to serve as the main agricultural policy in independent Kenya today. Yet, policymakers can re-engineer a new appropriate agricultural policy to promote economic development in the 21st century. Thus, the study sheds light on the legacy of colonial agricultural policy in independent Kenya by examining a pioneering LDSB scheme in the Ndalat Settlement Scheme in Nandi County, Kenya. The paper adopts a historical descriptive design with a sample size of 30 key informants conveniently sampled from 16 farmers, four cooperative society officials, five pioneering settlement officials, two Ministry of Agriculture officials, and three retired agricultural officers. The interview was the main research instrument supplemented by archival and government policy documents. The findings indicated that all the LDSB schemes were part of the colonial agricultural policy to reduce the pressure on land resources and were experimental in design. This colonial agricultural policy is credited with settlement programs, large-scale agricultural development, commercialization of food crops, and the institutionalization of producer cooperatives and statutory marketing boards. The study concluded that this colonial policy still dominates agricultural development in independent Kenya today. The study recommends that there is a need to revamp the agricultural policy to support the socio-economic development in Kenya.

Tourists’ Perceived Value of Geotourism Potential in Baringo County, Kenya

Tue, 01 Apr 2025 12:58:07 +0200

Tourism is a key driver of socio-economic development whose continued expansion and growth are key for the economy of many countries The growth and expansion of this sector will however depend upon exploiting other niche areas such as geotourism, as is the case in Europe and Asia This is unlike in most African countries including Kenya which are yet to embrace this sub-sector despite its rich geodiversity. In Baringo County, little is known concerning the perceived value of geotourism's potential to contribute towards diversifying tourism. This study therefore sought to assess tourists’ perceived value of geysers and hot springs in Lake Bogoria. This study adopted the Self-Determination theory and survey research method. All the tourists that visited Lake Bogoria during the study period provided the required data. A sample of 385 tourists was purposively selected for interview using a self-administered questionnaire. SPSS was used for the analysis of quantitative data while a modified Strba and Rybar scale was used for interpreting results. The results showed that the geysers and hot springs had high geotouristic value scores, indicating universal suitability for geotourism. They also had iconic value, suitable for recognition as a geosite. These geysers and hot springs offered opportunities for growing geotourism and diversifying tourism. The study concludes that UNESCO Global Geoparks should recognize geysers and hot springs as universal geosites. This study highlights the importance of embracing and promoting geotourism in the study area

Somalia-India Economic and Trade Relations (1989-2023)

Abdirahman Kasim Mohamed Abdullahi, Sadak Mohamud Hassan — Fri, 18 Apr 2025 11:20:15 +0200

Background: This article investigates the economic and trade relationship between India and Somalia from 1989 to 2023, focusing on primary economic indicators, bilateral trade flows, and the underlying dynamics. The study aims to uncover key trends, identify challenges, and highlight the potential of this partnership, especially given India’s growing influence as a strategic trade partner. Methodology: A descriptive and analytical research approach was adopted, relying on secondary data obtained from credible international databases, including the World Bank’s World Development Indicators (WDI), World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS), and the International Trade Centre (Trade Map). Key indicators analyzed include GDP, trade volume, import-export statistics, and product classifications, covering the period from 1989 to 2023. Objective: The research aims to explore Somalia's GDP growth, trade volume, and bilateral trade with India, emphasizing the country's reliance on basic commodities for imports and India's growing demand for raw materials. Special attention is given to Somalia’s limited export portfolio and the implications of a persistent trade imbalance. Findings: The study finds that bilateral trade between Somalia and India has increased substantially, reaching a total of $808.54 million in 2023. India emerged as Somalia’s third-largest import partner, accounting for $779.47 million in imports. In contrast, Somalia’s exports to India remain modest at $29.07 million, consisting largely of raw materials such as scrap copper, iron, aluminium, insect resins, oil seeds, and agricultural products. This imbalance reflects Somalia's dependency on imports and its underdeveloped export sector. Recommendations: To improve trade relations and reduce the deficit, Somalia should prioritize diversifying its export base by investing in manufacturing, agriculture, and fisheries. Enhancing domestic value addition, upgrading trade infrastructure, and establishing export promotion agencies would strengthen trade competitiveness and lead to long-term economic benefits.

Risk Vulnerability Mapping and Resilience Strategies of Populations Facing Flooding in Urban Environments: Case of Maroua, Far North, Cameroon

Fotsing Marcel Junior, Lila Reni Bibriven, PhD, Aoudou Doua Sylvain, PhD — Thu, 29 May 2025 19:38:56 +0200

Flood disasters pose a significant and enduring global challenge, disproportionately impacting urban populations in vulnerable regions like Africa, where accelerated urbanization and climate change exacerbate risks. This study examines community vulnerability and resilience strategies in response to flooding in Maroua, located in Cameroon’s Far North region. By integrating geospatial data for flood risk and vulnerability modelling, field surveys encompassing 400 households, and satellite imagery analysis, we assess the spatial distribution of flood risk, vulnerability, and the socio-economic and infrastructural impacts on at-risk populations. Our analysis reveals a substantial increase in flood risk over time, driven by the expansion of built-up areas from 6.18 km² in 1986 to 21.22 km² in 2024. Approximately 82% of surveyed households reported flood exposure, with impacts ranging from impaired mobility to fatalities. In response, communities have adopted adaptive measures, including elevating building foundations and employing resilient construction materials. These findings offer critical insights for policymakers seeking to improve the resilience and living conditions of Maroua’s flood-prone populations

The Role of Children Mau Mau Movement. A Case of Nyandarua County, between 1945 -1957

Wed, 04 Jun 2025 14:05:44 +0200

After the establishment of colonial rule, colonial land, labour, racial and other exploitative policies forced the Africans to take arms against colonial oppression. This led to the Mau Mau war of liberation. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of children in the Mau Mau movement in Nyandarua County between 1945 to 1963. This paper examines how Mau Mau Mau's oath was administered to children and the role played by children. The paper further analyses the challenges and sufferings experienced by the children in the Mau Mau movement. On the oathing, most of the informants who confessed to having undergone the oath ritual indicated that the exercise happened before the declaration of the state of emergency and were tricked into the oathing scene by people close to them - cousins, friends, and sometimes parents. The role of children in the Mau Mau movement included: One, spying and supplying intelligence to the Mau Mau forest fighters. They were charged with the responsibility of spying on the movements of the home guards and then infiltrating the same intelligence to the fighters who acted on the same. The same boys were used as messengers. As fast winners, they were hired to audaciously run combat intelligence from one location to another. Due to their innocence, this was perfectly done as both colonial and home guards never suspected them. Two, they were employed to furnish the forest fighters with food and other errands. Girls who had undertaken the Mau Mau oath took this task with precision and exhibited excellent skills that helped them disguise the colonial guards. Three, girls solicited information and firearms from unsuspecting colonial guards and home guards. Firearms were a necessity for the Africans whenever they were to launch successive expeditions against the imperialists. The young boys and girls did a commendable job in furnishing the fighters with this vital necessity. Four, young boys and girls did join the fighters in the forest.

How Colonial Policies Stalled the Agrarian Revolution in Independent Kenya: 1954 To 1992

Basiliano Samoei, Paul Kurgat, PhD, Paul Opondo, PhD — Fri, 27 Jun 2025 21:26:26 +0200

Considering that the Swynnerton plan of 1954 arose because of land crises and widespread impoverishment in African areas, this primal colonial agricultural policy was experimental in design and execution. Other significant experiments on African agriculture in pre-independent Kenya include the ‘communalism’ agricultural approach by Governor Sir Philip Mitchell in 1947 through the African Land Development Board (ALDEV) and the Land Development and Settlement Board (LDSB) schemes of 1961 – 62, which sought to integrate Africans into the capitalist economy. Empirical evidence shows that the colonial agricultural policy for improving African agriculture in pre-independent Kenya largely failed and directly compromised the realisation of the agrarian revolution's political, economic, and social benefits in independent Kenya, from 1954 to 1992. Farmers have regressed to subsistence food production as the smallholding mixed-farming units have failed, and so are monopsonic market structures. Based on the foregoing view, the study evaluated how the colonial agricultural policy in pre-independent Kenya largely stalled the agrarian revolution in independent Kenya by examining the historical development of the Ndalat Settlement Scheme, Nandi County, Kenya, as one of the LDSB schemes. The study adopted a historical descriptive design with a sample size of 48 key informants who were conveniently sampled from 32 farmers, four cooperative officials, five pioneering settlement officials, two Ministry of Agriculture officials, and three retired agricultural officers. Interviews were the main research instrument, complemented by archival and government policy documents. The findings indicated that the Ndalat settlement scheme was part of the colonial LDSB initiatives to resettle the landless Nandi people based on a loan facility under Her Majesty's Government (assisted–owner) schemes. In reflection, the colonial policy stalled the agrarian revolution through the experimental LDSB settlement schemes, which formed the basis for land redistribution in independent Kenya, institutionalised smallholding mixed-farming systems, commercialised food production systems supported monopsonic market structures that were linked to value addition in metropolitan capital London. In conclusion, the study idealized the alternate idyllic activities that would have supported agricultural development in independent Kenya such as the introduction of medium to large-scale specialized farms, commercialization of high-value crops such as coffee, tea, macadamia, avocado production, competitive marketing structures based on the producer cooperative structures, and local value addition processing. Based on the findings, there is a need to review the current agricultural policy and align it with the development needs of the independent Kenya.

Economic Development and the Muslim Community in Tanzania: Historical Challenges and Future Prospects

Suleiman Shomari Filambi, PhD — Fri, 04 Jul 2025 16:29:30 +0200

Economic development is essential for reducing poverty, promoting financial inclusion, and empowering communities. In Tanzania, the Muslim community has faced significant economic marginalisation due to historical and structural barriers. This study explores the historical challenges, current trends, and future opportunities for economic development within this community. The colonial era in Tanzania saw educational and financial systems that favoured Christian communities, leaving Muslims with limited access to resources and opportunities. Post-independence reforms aimed at promoting equity did not fully address these disparities, further hindering Muslim entrepreneurs from thriving in mainstream economic sectors. Islamic finance has emerged as a key solution, offering Shariah-compliant financial services. Institutions like Amana Bank and CRDB Islamic Banking have introduced interest-free loans and microfinance programs, helping to bridge financial gaps. Despite these advancements, challenges remain, particularly in rural areas where conventional banking still dominates. Entrepreneurship is vital for economic empowerment, with growth seen in retail, agriculture, and Islamic fashion industries. However, capital constraints, market competition, and regulatory barriers continue to limit business expansion for Muslim entrepreneurs. Investigating these issues, this study employs a qualitative research design, using semi-structured interviews and questionnaires to collect data from economic specialists, Muslim entrepreneurs, and community leaders. The findings highlight the need for policy reforms, financial inclusion strategies, entrepreneurial support programs, and community-led initiatives to promote equitable economic development for the Muslim community in Tanzania. By addressing historical inequities and financial barriers, Tanzania can create a more inclusive and prosperous economic environment for all its citizens.

An Inquiry into the Lived Experiences of Child Soldiers within the Lord's Resistance Army Insurgency in Amuru District, 1987-2024

Patrick Ochen, Odong James Bosco, Simon Okello, Agatha Alidri — Mon, 14 Jul 2025 19:11:56 +0200

Focusing on the heavily impacted region of Amuru District, this research delved into the lived experiences of former child soldiers conscripted by the LRA from 1987 to 2024. The study’s specific objectives were to: (i) examine the recruitment and abduction strategies employed by the LRA in Amuru District, (ii) investigate the experiences encountered, and (iii) assess the psychological and social effects of these experiences on child soldiers. Based on a qualitative approach and phenomenological design, the study used in-depth interviews, participant observation and Focus Group Discussions to collect the required data. The LRA leaders used systematic indoctrination and forced recruitment, instilling fear and dismantling social structures. The experiences included forced participation in violent killings often against their own communities, inhuman punishments, physical abuse, starvation and constant threats of death. Despite demonstrating remarkable resilience, many former child soldiers continue to face significant obstacles, including social stigma and economic hardship. The Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) strategically abducted children, using violent tactics to ensure dependency. The group systematically dismantled their identities through abuse and ritualised violence, inflicting lasting psychological trauma and social stigma. After the conflict, these former child soldiers face a difficult reintegration, with their trauma fueling a cycle of violence and poverty that destabilises entire communities. A multi-pronged mental health approach for addressing the complex trauma experienced by former child soldiers. Combat social stigma and rejection through structured, community-wide sensitisation and reconciliation initiatives, develop accelerated learning programs to build foundational literacy and numeracy skills, and commission and fund longitudinal studies that track the well-being of survivors and their families over time.