Analysis of Climate Variability Trends and Local Perceptions in Kieni West Sub-County, Kenya
الملخص
It is indisputable today that climate variability has taken place all over the world having huge impacts on ecosystems. Precipitation and rainfall are among the most notable changes of climate variability, majorly as a result of natural phenomena or anthropogenic activities contributing to global climatic extremes such as heatwaves, snow, droughts, and flooding. The aim of this study was to analyze trends of climate variability and local perceptions in Kieni West sub-county, Kenya. A mixed methods research design was employed where both quantitative and qualitative data were used. Gridded rainfall and temperature data was obtained from the Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD) for the period between 1988 and 2018. Mann-Kendall (MK) test statistic was used to detect climate trends in time series data and their statistical significance. Coefficient of Variation (CV) was employed to detect variations in seasonal rainfall both in short and long rain seasons. Pearson Coefficient of Correlation (r) was used to establish the relationship between rainfall and temperatures for the period 1988-2018. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics whereas qualitative data was analyzed by establishing themes and patterns. Data presentation was done by use of figures, tables as well as narratives. The findings revealed that annual rainfall had been decreasing by 6.294mm/year (p > .05) while annual temperatures had been increasing significantly at 0.021oC/year (p < .05). Correlation analysis between annual rainfall and mean annual maximum temperatures revealed a weak negative correlation (r (29) = .23, p =.213) whereas there was an insignificant weak positive linear relationship between annual rainfall and mean annual minimum temperatures (r (29) = .08, p = .688). Additionally, Pearson’s correlation analysis revealed a non-significant small positive relationship between mean monthly rainfall and mean monthly maximum temperatures (r (10) = .27, p = .391) and a significant large positive correlation between mean monthly rainfall and mean monthly minimum temperatures (r (10) = .79, p =.002). The majority of respondents observed decreased rainfall (83%) and increased temperatures (71%) in the area. The study concludes that climate variability is taking place in Kieni West sub-county, Kenya
التنزيلات
المراجع
Abid, M., Scheffran, J., Schneider, U.A., & Ashfaq, M. (2015). Farmers’ perceptions of and adaptation strategies to climate change and their determinants: the case of Punjab province, Pakistan. Earth Syst Dyn., 6, 225-43.
Abidoye, B. O., & Odusola, A. F. (2015). Climate change and economic growth in Africa: An econometric analysis. J. Afr. Econ., 24, 277–301.
Abrha, M. G. & Simhadri, S. (2017). Local climate trends and farmers’ perceptions in Southern Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. American Journal of Environmental Sciences, 4, 262–277.
Adaawen S. (2021). Understanding climate change and drought perceptions, impact and responses in the rural Savanna, West Africa. Atmosphere., 12(5), 594
Alemayehu, A., & Bewket, W. (2017). Local spatiotemporal variability and trends in rainfall and temperature in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Geogr. Ann. Ser. A Phys. Geogr. 99, 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/04353676.2017.1289460.
Amsalu, A. & Adem, A. (2009). Assessment of Climate Change- Induced Hazards, Impacts and Responses in the Southern Lowlands of Ethiopia, Forum for Social Studies (FSS), Washington, DC, USA. http://hdl.handle.net/ 123456789/3075.
Anyah, R. & Qui, W. (2011). Characteristic 20th and 21st century precipitation and temperature patterns and changes over the Greater Horn of Africa. International Journal of Climatology, 32, 347-363. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/joc.2270/abstract
Arora, N. K. (2019). Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture Production and Its Sustainable Solutions. Environ. Sustain., 2, 95–96.
Asamoah, Y. & Ansah-Mensah, K. (2020). Temporal Description of Annual Temperature and Rainfall in the Bawku Area of Ghana. Adv. Meteorol., 3402178.
Asare-Nuamah, P., & Botchway, E. (2019). Comparing smallholder farmers’ climate change perception with climate data: the case of Adansi North District of Ghana. Heliyon., 5(12), e03065
Asfaw, A., Simane, B., Hassen, A., & Bantider, A. (2017). Variability and time series trend analysis of rainfall and temperature in northcentral Ethiopia: A case study in Woleka sub-basin. Weather and Climate Extremes, 19, 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2017.12.002
Awange, J. L., Forootan, E., Kuhn, M., Kusche, J. & Heck, B. (2014) Water storage changes and climate variability within the Nile Basin between 2002 and 2011. Advances in Water Resources, 73, 1–15.
Benti, F., & Abara, M. (2019). Trend Analyses of Temperature and Rainfall and Their Response to Global CO2 Emission in Masha, Southern Ethiopia. Caraka Tani J. Sustain. Agric., 34, 67–75.
Birsan, M. V., Molnar, P., Burlando, P., & Pfaundler, M. (2005). Streamflow trends in Switzerland. J. Hydrol., 314, 312–329.
Bryan, E., Deressa, T. T., Gbetibouo, G. A., & Ringler, C. (2009). Adaptation to climate change in Ethiopia and South Africa: Options and constraints. Environ. Sci. Policy, 12, 413–426.
Chen, F., Huang, W., Jin, L., Chen, J., & Wang, J. (2011). Spatiotemporal precipitation variations in the arid Central Asia in the context of global warming. Sci. China Earth Sci. 54(12), 1812–1821.
Chepkoech, W., Mungai, N. W., Stober, S., Bett, H.K., & Lotze-campen, H. (2018). Farmers’ perspectives: impact of climate change on African indigenous vegetable production in Kenya. Int J Clim Chang Strateg Manag., 10, 551-79
Chikezie, C., Ibekwe, U.C., Ohajianya, D.O., Orebiyi, J.S., & Ibeagwa, O. B. (2019). Vulnerability of Food Crop Farmers to Climate Change in South Eastern Nigeria. AJAEES 2019, 30, 1–8.
Cudjoe, G. P., Antwi-Agyei, P., & Gyampoh, B. A., (2021). The effect of climate variability on maize production in the Ejura-sekyedumase Municipality, Ghana. Climate 9(10), 145.
Darabant, A., Habermann, B., Sisay, K., Thurnher, C., Worku, Y., Damtew, S., Lindtner, M., Burrell, L., & Abiyu, C. (2020). A. Farmers’ perceptions and matching climate records jointly explain adaptation responses in four communities around Lake Tana, Ethiopia. Clim. Chang., 163, 481–497.
Daron, J. D. (2014). Regional Climate Messages: East Africa; Scientific Report from the CARIAA Adaptation at Scale in Semi-Arid Regions (ASSAR) Project; Springer: Cape Town, South Africa, pp. 1–30.
Diem, J. E., Hartter, J., Salerno, J., McIntyre, E., Grandy, A. S. (2017). Comparison of measured multi-decadal rainfall variability with farmers’ perceptions of and responses to seasonal changes in western Uganda. Reg. Environ. Chang., 17, 1127–1140.
Dubache, G., Ogwang, B. A., Ongoma, V., & Islam, A.R.M.T. (2019). The effect of Indian Ocean on Ethiopian seasonal rainfall. Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 131, 1753–1761
Engelbrecht, F., Adegoke, J., Bopape, M.J., Naidoo, M., Garland, R., Thatcher, M., McGregor, J., Katzfey, J., Werner, M., & Ichoku, C. (2015). Projections of rapidly rising surface temperatures over Africa under low mitigation. Environ. Res. Lett., 10, 085004.
EPA. (2022). Climate Change Indicators: Seasonal Temperature; United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, USA, 2022. https://www.epa.gov/climate- indicators/climate-change-indicators-seasonal-temperature
Esayas, B.; Simane, B.; Teferi, E., Ongoma, V., & Tefera, N. (2019). Climate variability and farmers’ perception in southern Ethiopia. Adv. Meteorol., 7341465.
Etana, D., van Wesenbeeck, C. F., & de Cock Buning, T. (2020). Socio-cultural aspects of farmers’ perception of the risk of climate change and variability in Central Ethiopia. Clim. Dev., 1–13.
Ezenwa, L., Ezenwa, P., Ubuoh, E., & Nnamerenwa, G. (2018). Effects of climatic variability on livelihood choices among rural populace in Baringo County, Kenya and Jigawa State, Nigeria. Journal of Research in Forestry, Wildlife and Environment, 10(4), 55-70.
Ezin, V., Yabi, I., Kochoni, E. G. M., & Ahanchédé, A. (2018). Agriculture and food security under climate change threat in Benin. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 13, 1389–1399.
FAO (2015). Climate Change and Food Systems: Global Assessments and Implications for Food Security and Trade. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Crop water information. Rome: FAO.
FAO, AUC, ECA & WFP (2023). Africa – Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition 2023: Statistics and trends. Accra, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc8743en.
Few, R., Satyal, P., McGahey, D., Leavy, J., Budds, J., Assen, M., … & Bewket, W. (2015). Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change in The Semi-Arid Regions of East Africa. Ottawa.
Field, C. B. (2014). Climate Change 2014–Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Regional Aspects; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.
Funk, C., Peterson, P., Landsfeld, M., Pedreros, D., Verdin, J., Shukla, S., Husak, G., Rowland, J., Harrison, L., & Hoell, A. (2015). The climate hazards infrared precipitation with stations—A new environmental record for monitoring extremes. Sci. Data, 2, 150066.
Gan, T. Y., Ito, M., Hülsmann, S., Qin, X., Lu, X. X., Liong, S. Y., Rutschman, P., Disse, M., & Koivusalo, H. (2016). Possible climate change/variability and human impacts, vulnerability of drought-prone regions, water resources and capacity building for Africa. Hydrological Science Journal, 61, 1209–1226.
Gautam, R., Hsu, N. C., Lau, K. M., Tsay, S. C., Kafatos, M. (2009). Enhanced pre-monsoon warming over the Himalayan-Gangetic region from 1979 to 2007. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L07704.
Gebrechorkos, S. H., Hülsmann, S., & Bernhofer, C. (2018). Changes in temperature and precipitation extremes in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania. International Journal of Climatology, 39(1), 18–30. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5777
Gebrechorkos, S.H., Hülsmann, S., & Bernhofer, C. (2019). Long-term trends in rainfall and temperature using high-resolution climate datasets in East Africa. Sci. Rep., 9, 11376.
Gemeda, D. O., Feyssa, D. H., & Garedew, W. (2021). Meteorological data trend analysis and local community perception towards climate change: A case study of Jimma city, Southwestern Ethiopia. Environment Development and Sustainability, 23(4), 5885–5903. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020- 00851-6
Gichangi, E. M., Gatheru, M., Njiru, E. N., Mungube, E. O., Wambua, J. M., & Wamuongo, J. W. (2015). Assessment of climate variability and change in semi-arid eastern Kenya. Climatic Change, 130(2), 287–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-015-1341-2
Gitau W. (2012). Spatial coherence and potential predictability assessment of intra seasonal statistics of wet and dry spells over Equatorial Eastern Africa. Journal of Earth Science, (5), 272-301
GoK. (2013). National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) 2007-2013. Nairobi: Government Press. http://www.environment.go.ke
GoK. (2015). Second National Communication to the UNFCCC, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Nairobi Kenya.
GoK. (2018). National Climate Change Action Plan (Kenya): 2018-2022. Nairobi: Ministry of Environment and Forestry.
Graff Zivin, J., Hsiang, S. M. & Neidell, M. (2018). Temperature and human capital in the short and long run. Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, 5(1), 77-105.
Grbec, B., Matić, F., Paklar, G. B., Morović, M., Popović, R., & Vilibić, I. (2019). Long-term trends, variability and extremes of in situ sea surface temperature measured along the eastern Adriatic coast and its relationship to hemispheric processes. In Meteorology and Climatology of the Mediterranean and Black Seas (pp. 311-326). Birkhäuser, Cham.
Guodaar, L., Bardsley, D. K., & Suh, J. (2021). Integrating local perceptions with scientific evidence to understand climate change variability in northern Ghana: A mixed-methods approach. Appl. Geogr., 130, 102440.
Gupta, A. K., Negi, M., Nandy, S., Alatalo, J. M., Singh, V., & Pandey, R. (2019). Assessing the vulnerability of socio-environmental systems to climate change along an altitude gradient in the Indian Himalayas. Ecol. Ind., 106.
Habtemariam, L. T. M. Gandorfer, G. A. Kassa, A. & Heissenhuber, B. (2016). Factors influencing smallholder farmers’ climate change perceptions: a study from farmers in Ethiopia. Environmental Management, 58(2), 343–358.
Hayelom, B., Chen, Y., Marsie, Z., & Negash, M. (2017). Temperature and precipitation trend analysis over the last 30 years in Southern Tigray Regional State, Ethiopia. Preprints, 020014 doi:10.20944/preprints201702. 0014.v1).
Horton, D. R. B., Jones, P. D., Peterson, T. C., Karl, T. R., Parker, D. E., Salinger, J. M., Razuvzyev, V., Plummer, N., Jamason, P., Folland, C.K. (1997). Maximum and minimum temperature trends for the globe. Science 227, 364–365.
IPCC. (2007). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability,” in Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden, and C. E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press Cambridge, UK, 2007.
IPCC. (2013). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis, in Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
IPCC. (2014). Climate change 2014: synthesis report, in Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Core Writing Team, R. K. Pachauri and L. A. Meyer, Eds., IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland.
IPCC. (2021). Climate Change 2021: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Group I to the
Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland.
IPCC. (2022). Climate change 2022: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. In: Pörtner, H.-O.,
Roberts, D.C., Tignor, M., Poloczanska, E.S., Mintenbeck, K., Alegría, A., Craig, M., Langsdorf, S., Löschke, S., Möller, V., Okem, A. and Rama, B (Eds.), Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, 3056 pp., doi:10.1017/9781009325844.
Jemal, A., Temesgen, G., Gebrekidan, W., Yihun, T., Abeyou, W., & Solomon, A. (2022). Changes in observed rainfall and temperature extremes in the Upper Blue Nile basin of Ethiopia. Weather and Climate Extremes. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace. 2022.100468
Kabubo-Mariara, J. (2008). Climate change adaptation and livestock activity choices in Kenya: An economic analysis. Natural Resources Forum, 32(1), 131-141.
Karienye, D., Ochola, S., & Muriithi J. K. (2012): Impacts of climate variability on rural livelihoods in Nyeri County, Kenya. Lambert Academic Publishing, Saarbrucken, Germany.
Kariuki, G. M. (2016). Effect of climate variability on output and yields of selected crops in Kenya. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Kenyatta University.
Kassie, B. T. (2014). Climate Variability and Change in Ethiopia: Exploring Impacts and Adaptation Options for Cereal Production, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands.
Kendall, M. G. (1975). Rank Correlation Methods; Charles Griffin & Co. Ltd.: London, UK.
Kisaka, M. O., Mucheru-Muna, M., Ngetich, F. K., Mugwe, J. N., Mugendi, D., & Mairura, F. (2015). Rainfall Variability, Drought Characterization, and Efficacy of Rainfall Data Reconstruction: Case of Eastern Kenya. Advances in Meteorology, 1-16.
KNBS. (2019). Population by County and Sub County Volume 1. Counting our people for sustainable Development and Devolution of services. Kenya.
Koimbori, J. K., Shisanya, C.A., Murimi, S. K. & Petterson, R. (2018). Analysis of Rainfall and Temperature Trends in Bahati Sub-County, Kenya. Asian Journal of Applied Sciences, 6(6), 579-590. DOI: 10.24203/ajas. v6i6.5651
Mahmood, R. & Jia, S. (2018). Analysis of causes of decreasing inflow to the Lake Chad due to climate variability and human activities. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., 1–42. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2018-139
Mann, H. B. (1945). Nonparametric tests against trend. Econom. J. Econom. Soc., 13, 245–259.
Mesfin, D., Simane, B., Belay, A., Recha, J.W., & Schmiedel, U. (2020). Assessing the Adaptive Capacity of Households to Climate Change in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Climate, 8, 106.
Minda, T.T., van der Molen, M. K.; Struik, P.C., Combe, M., Jiménez, P. A., Khan, M. S. de Arellano, J.V.-G. (2018). The combined effect of elevation and meteorology on potato crop dynamics: A 10-year study in the Gamo Highlands, Ethiopia. Agric. For. Meteorol., 262, 166–177.
MoALF. (2016). Climate Risk Profile for Nyeri. Kenya County Climate Risk Profile Series. The
Kenya Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MoALF), Nairobi, Kenya.
Moyo, M., Mvumi, B. M., Kunzekweguta, M., Mazvimavi, K., Craufurd P., & Dorward, P. (2012). Farmer Perceptions on Climate Change and Variability in Semi-Arid Zimbabwe in Relation to Climatology Evidence. African Crop Science Journal, 20(2), 317 – 335.
Mubiru, D. N., Komutunga, E., Agona, A. Apok, A., & Ngara, T. (2012). Characterizing agrometeorological climate risks and uncertainties: crop production in Uganda. S Afr J Sci., 108 (3), 1-1
Muchuru, S., & Godwell N. (2019). Sustaining African Water Resources under Climate Change: Emerging Adaptation Measures from UNFCC National Communications. African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development, 1- 16. https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.20`8.1550934.
Mukaka, M. M. (2012). Guide to appropriate use of Correlation Coefficient in medical research. Malawi Medical Journal, 24(3), 69-71.
Nashwan, M. S., Ismail, T., & Ahmed, K. (2018). Flood susceptibility assessment in Kelantan River basin using copula. Int. J. Eng. Technol., 7, 584–590.
Newing, H. (2010). Conducting research in conservation: social science methods and practice. Routledge.
Niang I., Ruppel, O. C., Abdrabo, M. A., Essel, A., Lennard, C., Padgham, J., & Urquhart, P. (2014). Africa. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V.R., C.B. Field, D.J. Dokken, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1199-1265.
Nicholson, S. E. (2017). Climate and climate variability of rainfall over Eastern Africa. Rev. Geophys, 55(3), 590-635.
NOAA (2022). 2022 was world’s 6th-warmest year on record. Antarctic sea ice coverage melted to near-record lows. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Omondi, P. A. O., Awange, J. L., Forootan, E., Ogallo, L. A., Barakiza, R., Girmaw, G. B., Fesseha, I., Kululetera, V., Kilembe, C., Mbati, M. M., Kilavi, M., King’uyu, S. M., Omeny, P. A., Njogu, A., Badr, E. M., Musa, T. A., Muchiri, P., Bamanya, D. & Komutunga, E. (2014). Changes in temperature and precipitation extremes over the Greater Horn of Africa region from 1961 to 2010. International Journal of Climatology 34(4), 1262–1277.
Omoyo, N. N., Wakhungu, J., & Oteng’i, S. (2015). Effects of climate variability on maize yield in the arid and semi-arid lands of lower eastern Kenya. Agriculture & Food Security, 4, 8-21. Doi: 10.1186/s40066-015-0028-2.
Ongoma, V., & Chen, H. (2017). Temporal and spatial variability of temperature and precipitation over East Africa from 1951 to 2010. Meteorol. Atmosc Phys., 129(2), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-016-0462-0
Ongoma, V., Chen, H. & Omony, G. W. (2018). Variability of extreme weather events over the equatorial East Africa, a case study of rainfall in Kenya and Uganda. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 131(1-2), 295–308.
Opiyo, F., Nyangito, M., Wasonga, V., & Omondi, P. (2014). Trend Analysis of Rainfall and Temperature Variability in Arid Environment of Turkana, Kenya. Environmental Research Journal, 8, 30-43
Parry. J., Echeverria, D., Dekens, J., & Maitima, J. (2012). Climate Risks, Vulnerability and Governance in Kenya: A review.
Pendergrass, A. G., Knutti, R., Lehner, F., Deser, C., & Sanderson, B. M. (2017). Precipitation variability increases in a warmer climate. Scientific https://www.nature.com/scientificreports.
Philip, S., Kew, S.F., Jan van Oldenborgh, G., Otto, F., O’Keefe, S., Haustein, K., King, A., Zegeye, A., Eshetu, Z., & Hailemariam, K. (2018). Attribution analysis of the Ethiopian drought of 2015. J. Clim., 31, 2465–2486.
Rana, A., Moradkhani, H., & Qin, Y. (2017). Understanding the joint behavior of temperature and precipitation for climate change impact studies. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 129(1–2), 321–339.
Reidmiller, D., Avery, C., Easterling, D., Kunkel, K., Lewis, K., Maycock, T., & Stewart, B. (2018). Fourth national climate assessment, Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States; US Global Change Research Program: Washington, DC, USA, 2018; Volume 2.
Rowell, D.P., Booth, B.B., Nicholson, S.E., & Good, P. (2015). Reconciling past and future rainfall trends over East Africa. J. Clim., 28, 9768–9788.
Salack, S., Klein, C., Giannini, A., Sarr, B., Worou, O.N., Belko, N., Bliefernicht, J., & Kunstman, H. (2016). Global warming induced hybrid rainy seasons in the Sahel. Environ. Res. Lett. 11, 104008.
Sen, P. K. (1968). Estimates of the regression coefficient based on Kendall’s tau. J. Am. Stat. Assoc., 63, 1379–1389.
Shawul, A. A., & Chakma, S. (2020). Trend of extreme precipitation indices and analysis of long-term climate variability in the Upper Awash basin, Ethiopia. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 140, 635–652.
Shisanya, C. A., Recha, C., & Anyamba, A. (2011). Rainfall Variability and Its Impact on Normalized Difference Vegetation Index in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands of Kenya. International Journal of Geosciences, 2, 36-47.
Sylla, M. B., Elguindi, N., Giorgi, F., & Wisser, D. (2016). Projected robust shift of climate zones over West Africa in response to anthropogenic climate change for the late 21st century. Clim. Change 134, 241–253.
Tadesse, G., Bekele, M. & Tesfaye, B. (2017). Farmers’ perceptions and adaptation strategies to climate change and variability the case of Kacha bira Woreda, Kembata tembaro zone, southern nations, Nationalities and peoples Ethiopia. Journal of Environmental and Earth Science, 7(3), 52–61.
Teshome, H., Tesfaye, K., Dechassa, N., Tana, T., Huber, M. (2021). Smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate change and adaptation practices for maize production in eastern Ethiopia. Sustainability 13(17), 9622.
Teye, J. K., Yaro, J. A., & Bawakyillenuo, S. (2015). Local farmers’ experiences and perceptions of climate change in the Northern Savannah zone of Ghana. Int. J. Clim. Chang. Strateg. Manag., 7, 327–347.
Tierney, J. E., Smerdon, J. E., Anchukaitis, K. J., & Seager, R. (2013). Multidecadal variability in East African hydro climate controlled by the Indian Ocean. Nature, 493, 389–392.
Turco, M., Jerez, S., Doblas-Reyes, F. J., AghaKouchak, A., Llasat, M. C., & Provenzale, A. (2018). Skillful forecasting of global fire activity using seasonal climate predictions. Nature Communications, 9(1), 271 -278.
UNEP (2008). Human vulnerability and food insecurity: Rainfall and economy in Sub Saharan Africa. http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/humanvulnerability-and-food insecurity-rainfall-and-economy-in-Sub-saharan-africa1
Urgessa, G. K. (2013). Spatial and temporal uncertainty of rainfall in arid and semi-arid areas of Ethiopia. Sci. Technol. Arts Res. J., 2, 106–113.
Viste, D., Korecha, B., & Sorteberg, A. (2013). Recent drought and precipitation tendencies in Ethiopia. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 112(3-4), 535–551.
Wagesho, N., Goel, N., & Jain, M. (2013). Temporal and spatial variability of annual and seasonal rainfall over Ethiopia. Hydrol. Sci. J., 58, 354–373.
Weldegebriel, Z. B. & Prowse, M. (2017). Climate variability and livelihood diversification in northern Ethiopia: a case study of Lasta and Beyeda districts. Geographical Journal, 183(1), 84–96.
Wodaje, G.G., Eshetu, Z. & Argaw, M. (2016). Temporal and spatial variability of rainfall distribution and evapotranspiration across altitudinal gradient in the Bilate River Watershed, Southern Ethiopia. Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol., 10, 167–180.
WMO. (2020). World Meteorological Organization Commission for Climatology. In State of the Climate in Africa 2019; Report WMONo.1253; World Meteorological Organisation: Geneva, Switzerland, 37p.
World Bank (2021). Climate Risk Country Profile: Kenya. https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2021-01/15724WB_Kenya%20Country%20Profile-WEB.pdf
Yu, D., Liu, Y., Shi, P., & Wu, J. (2019). Projecting impacts of climate change on global terrestrial ecoregions. Ecol. Indic. 103, 114–123.
Zhao, C., Liu, B., Piao, S., Wang, X., Lobell, D. B., Huang, Y., ... & Durand, J. L. (2017). Temperature increase reduces global yields of major crops in four independent estimates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(35), 9326-9331.
الحقوق الفكرية (c) 2025 Godhard Muiruri Kariuki, Mary Wamuyu Baaru, Joseph Kariuki Muriithi
هذا العمل مرخص حسب الرخصة Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
