Climate Smart Agriculture in Kenya's ASALS: Gaps and Barriers in Policy Development and Implementation
Abstract
This paper presents an evaluation of the gaps and barriers in policy development and implementation with regard to Climate Change in Kenya's arid and semi-arid lands (ASALS). In spite of concerted efforts and considerable attention accorded to the climate change effects in the region, there is little improvement. Through a desktop review of previous studies and policy documents, this paper examines the mitigation measures proposed and interrogates the practicality of these measures as well as the gaps and challenges in formulation and implementation. The ASALS are the most hit by climate change, and they make up 89% of the country's landmass and are home to approximately 20 million people, which translates to 38% of the Kenyan population. The region is also home to 60% of the country's livestock, and the considerable contribution of livestock to global warming is justification enough to focus on Climate Smart Agriculture in the ASALS. The region is predominantly rural, and for their livelihoods, the farmers rely on rain, which has become unreliable due to climate, hence the persistent food insecurity. Policies have been formulated to address mitigation, adaptation, and food security with outcomes such as improving yields, growing net returns, lessening the emission of Green House Gases, boosting input use and efficiency, enhancing resilience, and improving gender and social inclusion. Understanding the constraints in the implementation of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices would be useful in improving policy formulation and intervention planning. The findings of this study reveal gaps and barriers in the formulation and implementation of CSA policies stemming from lack of awareness, which is responsible for the low adaptability levels, nature of land ownership in the ASALS, cultural factors, poor coordination between stakeholders and inadequate funding for CSA projects
Downloads
References
Akuja, T., & Kandagor, J. (2019). A review of policies and agricultural productivity in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALS), Kenya: The case study of Turkana County. Journal of Applied Bioscience. 140.14304-14315
Berre, D., Ndegwa, M., Kariuki, S. & De Groote, H. (2016). Participatory evaluation and application of climate-smart agriculture practices in mixed smallholder farming systems: a case study in the semi-arid regions of Kenya. https://agritrop.cirad.fr/582429/1/FINAL_ONLINE.pdf
Brown, P. R., Sharmin, A., Chialue, L., Chiranjeevi, T., Sotheary, E., Grünbühel, C.E. & Iqbal K. (2018). “Constraints to the capacity of smallholder farming households to adapt to climate change in south and southeast asia.” Climate and Development, March, 1–18.
Cassandro M. (2020). Animal breeding and climate change, mitigation and adaptation. Journal of animal breeding and genetics = Zeitschrift fur Tierzuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie, 137(2), 121–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbg.12469
Central Bank of Kenya (2023). Agriculture Sector Survey: January 2023. CBK. https://www.centralbank.go.ke/uploads/market_perception_surveys/1997478297_Agriculture%20Sector%20Survey%20January%202023.pdf
Chandra, A., McNamara, E.K & Dardusch, P. (2017). Climate Smart Agriculture: perspectives and framings. Climate Policy, DOI: 10.1080/14693062.2017.1316968
Denton, F. (2002), "Climate change vulnerability, impacts, and adaptation: why does gender matter?" Gender and Development, 10(2), 10-20
Elia, E. (2017). Farmers’ Awareness and Understanding of Climate Change and Variability in Central Semi-arid Tanzania. University of Dar es Salaam Library Journal, 12, (2), 124-138
FAO (2010). Climate-smart agriculture: Policies, practices and financing for food security, adaptation and mitigation. Rome: Author.
FAO (2013). Climate Smart Agriculture Source Book. Rome: Author.
FAO (2018). National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) 2018 – 2022. Rome: FAO. https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/ken190169.pdf
FAO. (2023). The State of Food and Agriculture 2023 – Revealing the true cost of food to transform agrifood systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc7724en
Gabriel, I., Olajuwon, F. & Klauser, D. (2023). State of climate smart agriculture (CSA) practices in the North Central and Northwest zones Nigeria. CABI Agriculture and Bioscience, 4(33), 2-8 file:///C:/Users/Hp/Downloads/s43170-023-00156-4.pdf
Gebre, G. G., Amekawa, Y., Fikadu, A. A. & Rahut, B.D. (2023). Farmers′ use of climate change adaptation strategies and their impacts on food security in Kenya, Climate Risk Management, 40, 100495 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2023.100495.
IGAD (2021). IGAD Strategy for Sustainable and Resilient Livestock Development in View of Climate Change (2022 – 2037). https://icpald.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/IGAD-Strategy-for-Sustainable-and-Resilient-Livestock-Development.pdf
ILOSTAT (2019). Data retrieved in Dec. 2022. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL. FE.ZS?contextual=ag-employment-by-gender&locations=KE&view=chart.
Kalele, N.K, Ogara, W.O., Oludhe, C. & Onono, J.O. (2021). Climate change impacts and relevance of smallholder farmers' response in arid and semi-arid lands in Kenya. Scientific African, (2021) e00814
Kalungu, J.W., Filho, W.L., Mbuge, D.O., Cheruiyot, H.K. (2014). Assessing the Impact of Rainwater Harvesting Technology as Adaptation Strategy for Rural Communities in Makueni County, Kenya . In: Leal Filho, W. (eds) Handbook of Climate Change Adaptation. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-40455-9_23-1
Kim, B., Neff, R., Santo, R. & Vigorito, J. (2015). The Importance of Reducing Animal Product Consumption and Wasted Food in Mitigating Catastrophic Climate Change. Report, prepared in advance of the United Nations Conference of the Parties 21 (COP21) in Paris. John Hopkins Center for a Livable future, https://clf.jhsph.edu/sites/default/files/2019-01/importance-of-reducing-animal-product-consumption-and-wasted-food-in-mitigating-catastrophic-climate-change.pdf
Malhi, G. S., Kaur, M., & Kaushik, P. (2021). Impact of climate change on agriculture and its mitigation strategies: A review. Sustainability, 13(3), 1318 -1339. https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/3/1318
Marenya, P. P., Wanyama, R., Alemu, S. & Woyengo, V. (2022). Building Resilient Maize Production Systems with Stress-Adapted Varieties: Farmers’ Priorities in Western Kenya. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 6, 702405. Doi:10.3389/fsufs.2022.702405
Marty, E., Bullock, R., Cashmore, M., Crane, T. & Eriksen (2022). Adapting to climate change among transitioning Maasai pastoralists in southern Kenya: an intersectional analysis of differentiated abilities to benefit from diversification processes.
Mudekhere, S. M., Mugavai, E. M. & Nabiswa, F. M. (2023). Indigenous knowledge factors influencing farmers' uptake of climate change adaptation strategies in Kajiado County, Kenya. Journal of Water and Climate Change, 14 (7), 2244–2259.
https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2023.025
Mwongera, C., Nowak, A., Notenbaert, A. M. O., Grey, S., Osiemo, J., Kinyua, I., Girvetz, M. W. Thongoh E. et al. (2019). Climate-Smart Agricultural Value Chains: Risks and Perspectives. In T. Rosenstock, A. Nowak, & E. Girvetz (Eds.), The Climate-Smart Agriculture Papers (pp.235-245). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92798-5_20
Ndungu, C., & Mwangi, M. (2023). Factors Influencing Farmers' Adaptations to Climate Change and Variability in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands of Kitui and Kajiado Counties, Kenya. African Journal of Climate Change and Resource Sustainability, 2(1), 28-41. https://doi.org/10.37284/ajccrs.2.1.1137
Neufeldt, H., Jahn, M., Campbell, B. M., Beddington, J. R., DeClerck, F., De Pinto, A., … Zougmoré, R. (2013). Beyond climate-smart agriculture: Toward safe operating spaces for global food systems. Agriculture and Food Security, 2(12), 1–6. doi:10.1186/2048-7010-2-12
Ondiko, J. H. & Karanja, A. M. (2021) Spatial and Temporal Occurrence and Effects of Droughts on Crop Yields in Kenya. Open Access Library Journal, 8, 1-13. doi: 10.4236/oalib.1107354.
Omolo, N. & Mafongoya, P.L. (2019), "Gender, social capital and adaptive capacity to climate variability: A case of pastoralists in arid and semi-arid regions in Kenya", International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 11(5), 744-758. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCCSM-01-2018-0009
Raina, V.S., Singh, A. P., Kour, A. & Tyagi, B. (2023). Understanding Linkages Between Livestock Snesitivity and Climate Variability in Drylands for Developing Appropriate Management Strategies. In A. Naorem & D. Machiwal (Eds), Enhancing Resilience of Dryland Agriculture under Changing Climate. (pp. 563 – 574). Springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-19-9159-2_27
Reliefweb (2022). Kenya ASAL: IPC Acute Food Insecurity and Acute Malnutrition Analysis (February - June 2022) Issued in March 2022. https://reliefweb.int/report/kenya/kenya-asal-ipc-acute-food-insecurity-and-acute-malnutrition-analysis-february-june-2022
Sombroek, W.S. & Gommes, R. (1996). The climate change-agriculture conundrum, pp. 1-14.In: F. Bazzaz and W. Sombroek (1996) (Eds.), Global Climate Change and Agricultural Production, FAO (Rome, Italy) and John Wiley (Chichester, UK).
Sonwa, D.J., Dieye, A., El Mzouri, E.H., Majule, A., Mugabe, F.T., Omolo, N., Wouapi, H., Obando, J. and Brooks, N. 2017. Drivers of climate risk in African agriculture. Climate and Development 9 (5): 383-398. DOI: 10.1080/17565529.2016.1167659
Suarez, I. (2020). 5 Strategies that Achieve Climate Mitigation and Adaptation Simultaneously. World Resources Institute. https://www.wri.org/insights/5-strategies-achieve-climate-mitigation-and-adaptation-simultaneously
USAID. (2022). Kenya Climate Change Profile. https://www.usaid.gov/climate/country-profiles/kenya
Van Aelst, K. & Holvoet, N. (2016), Intersections of gender and marital status in accessing climate change adaptation: evidence from rural Tanzania, World Development, 79, 40-50.
Villa, P.M., Rodrigues, A.C., Martins, V. S., Oleveira Neto, S.N., Laverde, A.G. & Riera-Seijas, A. (2021). educing intensification by shifting cultivation through sustainable climate-smart practices in tropical forests: A review in the context of UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, Current Research in Environmental Sustainability, 3,(2021), 100058 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2021.100058.
Wamalwa, I.W. (2017). Adoption of Climate Smart Agricultural Practices Among Small Scale Farmers of Kitutu and Nyaribari Chache in Kisii County, Kenya. PhD Thesis. Kenyatta University.
Wily, L.A. (2018) The Community Land Act in Kenya: Opportunities and Challenges for Communities. Land, MDPI, 7(1), 1-25
Zandalinas, S.I., Balfagón, D., Gómez-Cadenas, A. & Mittler, R. (2022). Plant responses to climate change: Metabolic changes under combined abiotic stresses. Journal of Experimental Botany, 73(11), 3339–3354.
Copyright (c) 2024 Thomas Ekamais Akuja, PhD, Jacqueline Jebet Kandagor
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
